eChapters

Rearing poultry industrially is a necessity in the present condition where the demand is high and the land holdings for extensive rearing is diminishing. All over the world the poultry industry is growing rapidly. The poultry industry in India is growing at around 8 per cent per annum. The poultry population of the country mainly consists of chicken, ducks, quails, ornamental birds and ratites. Chicken form is the major component of the industry. They are mainly reared as broilers for meat purpose and as layers for eggs. The climatic variations and their effects on profitable poultry rearing are an important topic of study in the current situation, where intensive rearing and global warming are being discussed with equal importance. The welfare aspects of the birds are also a matter of concern all over the world. Thus the knowledge of normal physiology of poultry, the effects of the tropical climate on them and the measures to alleviate detrimental effects produced by adverse climatic conditions have been discussed in detail here.

Principle

The residue from the cell walls determination is extracted with boiling 8 percent sulphuric acid for one hour to hydrolyse the hemicellulose without dissolving cellulose, lignin or acid insoluble ash.

Equipment
    1.    Refluxing apparatus.
    2.     Filtering apparatus: same as described for cell wall determination
    3.    Filtering crucibles: same as described for cell wall determination.

Reagents

    1.    Sulphuric acid (8%) : Standardize Reagent grade sulphuric acid to specific gravity of 1.052 at 20ºC.
    2.    Bromocresol green indicator solution: Same as used for lignin determination.

Hemorrhagic disorders refer to conditions that impair the ability of an animal’s blood to clot properly, resulting in prolonged or excessive bleeding. These disorders can be broadly categorized into congenital coagulation defects and acquired coagulation defects, each with distinct etiologies, pathophysiologies, and clinical manifestations.
a) Congenital coagulation defects
Congenital coagulation defects are inherited conditions caused by genetic mutations affecting one or more components of the coagulation cascade. These defects are often breed-specific and can be observed in a variety of domestic animals.
Common types of congenital coagulation defects
Hemophilia- A
Cause: Deficiency of factor VIII.
Affected animals: Common in dogs, especially German Shepherds, and less common in cats and horses,
Pathophysiology: Factor VIII is essential for forming the intrinsic tenase complex, which amplifies thrombin generation. Its deficiency results in inadequate fibrin formation and poor clot stability.
Clinical signs: Spontaneous bleeding, hematomas, hemarthrosis (bleeding into joints), and prolonged bleeding after trauma or surgery.
Diagnosis: Prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), normal prothrombin time (PT), and reduced Factor VIII activity.

Introduction

There is concern that antibiotic-resistance in bacteria may make commonly used antibiotics less effective. Oral immunotherapy (passive immunization) with specific antibodies is a strategy that has been actively pursued in laboratory and clinical studies for the last two decades. Feeding of egg yolk antibodies to neutralize specific pathogens, especially enteric microorganisms, is a potential alternative to antibiotics. Oral administration of these antibodies has met with some degree of success in prevention of viral and bacterial enteric infections in humans, piglets, calves, fish and rabbits. It is proposed that the egg yolk antibodies may act against enteric pathogens by binding, immobilising and consequently reducing or inhibiting the growth, replication, or colony forming abilities of these pathogens. Three immunoglobulin classes (IgA, IgM and IgY) have been shown to exist in chickens. Chicken immunoglobulin G (IgG) has been designated as immunoglobulin Y(IgY) because it varies in several aspects from mammalian IgG. IgY is the main serum immunoglobulin in chickens. It is transported from the hen to the embryo via the egg yolk. The egg yolk thus contains high concentrations of IgY. Other immunoglobulin (Ig) classes are present only in negligible amounts in the egg yolk. It has been shown that the presence of immunoglobulins in eggs is an example of passive immunity. This is because these antibodies originated from the hen and are used to protect the offspring from various infectious diseases after hatch.

Introduction

Wound is a disruption to the epithelial integrity of the skin, extended in-depth to subcutaneous tissue and other body parts such as ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and bone (Robson et al. 2001). An appropriate wound healing is essential for the restoration of disrupted anatomical continuity (Begum, 2000). We have observed increasing interest in research based on traditional medicines of the world in the recent era (Medina-Franco et al. 2013). Traditional and complementary medicine regains popularity not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. Common and known practices across the globe of traditional medicines include Herbal, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Iranian, Islamic, Vietnamese, Chinese, Acupuncture, African and other pseudo-medical knowledge (Dorai 2012). According to World Health Organization (WHO), traditional medicine ‘the health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being’. Saxena et al. (2013) reported that phytochemicals present in plants are liable for preventing disease and promoting health. Antibiotics used in the treatment of wound infections are now proved to have adverse effects in the human body and in pathogens where resistance is emerging. Attention has, therefore, turned towards extracting biologically active compounds from plant species having wound healing property (Pattanayak and Sunita, 2008).

Various products of karanj (Pongamia glabra) are utilized for industrial, health and animal agricultural application in the Indian subcontinent. Despite a rich source of protein (CP 28 —34 %), karanj (honge) cake is found to be slightly bitter in taste and toxic owing to the presence of furanoflavonoid (Karanjin), restricting its safe inclusion in the livestock diets. Though a non polar solvent, soxhlet extraction of karanj seed cake with petroleum ether/ acetone drastically reduces karanjin content. The residual cake left after solvent extraction is proved to be safe as animal feed supplement.

Estimation of karanjin

The samples can be analysed for the toxin, karanjin as per the method of Prabhu et al. (2002).

Extraction of Karanjin from Raw and Processed Cake

Exactly 25 gm of ground and thoroughly mixed sample is weighed and transferred into the thimble and extracted for 12h using 200ml of freshly distilled methanol as solvent. Methanol extract is then cooled and filtered into preweighted round bottom flask using Whatman No.1 filter paper.The excess methanol is distilled off under vacuum. The flask containing the extract is weighed again to obtain the weight of extract by subtracting the empty flask’s weight. Sufficient amount of moisture free extract is transferred into vials for further analysis.

Rabbit domestication dates back no farther than the previous millennium. It were the Phoenicians who are said to have discovered the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus of Southern Europe and North Africa when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000 B.C. In Roman times, the rabbit was still emblematic of Spain. The Roman spread the rabbit throughout the empire as a game animal. Like the Spaniards, the Romans also ate foetuses or new born rabbits, which they called laurices. It then becomes a practice that the rabbits were kept in leporarian, stone –walled pens or parks for hunting purposes. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for the development of game parks in the middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during lent because they were an aquatic dish. In France, only the lord of the manor could maintain a warren.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Define feeding standards?

Ans: Feeding standards are the statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the animals or human.

2.    Limitation of feeding standard?

Ans: Palatability and physical nature of the ration are not included and does not included the environmental factors because environment may change the nutrient requirements.

3.    Write down the merits of ME system?

Ans: ME gives more correct result than DE or TDN. It is because energy losses in urine and GDP are corrected in ME system and ME is cheaper and easier to obtain than NE values.

4.    What is the purpose of following feeding standard?

Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of forages or crop residues with high moisture content. The objective of silage making is to preserve the harvested forages by anaerobic fermentation in which soluble carbohydrates are converted into acids. Due to acid produced, pH of a well-ensiled product becomes so low that all life processes come to a halt and the material remain preserved so long as it remains in airtight storage. Soluble carbohydrate present in forage is converted to lactic acid which drops the pH to a level sufficient to inhibit any further biological activity in the ensiled forage mass (McDonald, 1991). Fresh forage crops, such as maize, grasses, legumes, wheat and Lucerne, can be preserved by ensiling. It is essential to have a good microbial fermentation process to produce high quality silage. Good silage is achieved by discouraging the activity of plant enzymes and undesirable micro-organisms and encouraging the dominance of lactic acid bacteria. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. Silage-making is a managemental tool that allows producers to match feed resources (forages, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, etc.) with feed demand for a dairy herd.

A. Write the full form of the following:

i.         AAFCO: Association of American Feed Control Officials.

ii.        AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

iii.       HPLC: High Performance/Pressure Liquid Chromatography

iv.       GLC: Gas Liquid Chromatography

v.        AFRC: Agriculture & Food Research Council.

vi.       AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project.

vii.      AOAC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists

viii.     ARC: Agricultural Research Council (United Kingdom)

ix.      BIS: Bureau of Indian Standard

x.      CIRC: Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut

xi.     CIRG: Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom.

xii.    CLFMA: Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (of India)

xiii.   COP 22: 22nd Conference of Parties.

The word chicken originated from old English word ‘icen’, Germanic word ‘kivkenam’ and cock (‘keuk’). According to Charles Darwin, the original chicken (Gallus domesticus) from which all modern domestic breeds of chicken have descended is referred to as Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus). Archaeological discoveries in the Indus Valley suggest that chickens were probably domesticated from the Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) as early as 5400 B.C. (West and Zhou, 1988). But there are some others who believe that modern chickens have been contributed by four wild species found in South East Asia. These were Gallus gallus (Red jungle fowl) found in eastern part of India, Burma, Java and Sumatra, Gallus sonneratii (Grey jungle fowl) prevalent in western and southern parts of India, Gallus lafayetti (Ceylone
jungle fowl) the native of Sri Lanka and Gallus varius (Javan jungle fowl) found in lower adjacent islands of Java.
2.1. Origin of Modern Poultry
• 8000 BC
Archaeological evidence suggests that chicken existed in China
• 5400 BC
China - Cishan culture; but contribution of these birds to modern birds are doubtful.
• 3000 BC
In India account of cock fighting indicate that chicken have been part of the culture for a long time.

Rabbits belong to the mammalian order Lagomorpha, which includes rabbits, hares, and Pikas. Fossil records indicate that Lagomorpha originated in Asia over 40 million years ago during the Eocene period. The continental drift during this period likely contributed to the diverse distribution of rabbit and hare species worldwide, excluding Australia. There are over 60 recognized breeds of domestic rabbits in Europe and America, all descended from the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), the only widely domesticated rabbit species. This species is distinct from native rabbits like North American jackrabbits and cottontail rabbits, as well as all hare species.

Dogs, Cats and birds are pet animals.

Chromosome number of dogs-78

Good Angora breed yield wool of 2-2 ½ “ an average. On record, 8” of wool is also obtained.

6.1 Kinetics of Rumen Digestion

The rate and extent of digestion of dry matter or organic matter in the rumen is regarded as the important parameter to predict voluntary feed intake (Khazaal et al., 1993; Blummel,1994). Voluntary feed intake is responsible for more than 50 per cent of the variations in animal response to the diet (Van Soest, 1994) and with low quality unsupplemented roughages, this can be as much as 93% (Blumme1,1994). Therefore, any parameter of feed evaluation that would indicate the voluntary feed intake would be a useful parameter to judge the quality of feedstuff. The rate of digestion of any feed component can be measured by determining extent of digestion at intervals of time. Therefore, the techniques for determining extent of digestion, such as the rumen in vitro techniques (Tilley and Terry, 1963; Goering and Van Soest, 1970) or the in situ Dacron bag technique have been adopted to derive rate of degradation of dry matter of any particular component of the feedstuff. However, unlike in determining the extent of digestion, wherein the incubation is turned off at one particular time (normally 48 hours), measurement of rate of digestion, requires termination of incubation at several points between the start of incubation and until at least 90% of the potentially digestible dry matter is digested (72 or 96 hours). This generates a large number of samples for analysis.

In gas production technique, since gas produced from digestion of substrate is accumulated in the incubations, measurement of gas at different times of incubation would reflect the extent of digestion at different times of incubation. Therefore, unlike with other in vitro / in situ techniques wherein, digestion is determined from the gravimetric disappearance of feed at different times of incubation, gas production technique offers the possibility of using cumulative gas production at different times of incubation to measure the rate of digestion. Thus, a single incubation of feedstuffs is adequate to measure the rate of gas production.

Bengal. Introduction
Homeostasis is unlike any time control process because it involves a very complicated relationship between fundamental knowledge of balance and coordination that ensures existence and performance of all creatures. It is in fact one of the major functioning mechanisms of biological systems, which allows them to sustain stable internal surroundings regardless of outside changes. This regulatory system is essential for evolutionary survival
as well as physiological balance. At the same time, time management-often viewed in terms of human productivity-plays an important part in biology by influencing biological clocks and circadian rhythms. In order to be healthy, behavior and species evolution, physiological processes have to synchronize their daily and seasonal changes caused by environment factors. At first glance, these two concepts seem to be unrelated; but if
viewed from the perspectives of biology and evolution, it becomes clear that they are deeply connected. These include temperature levels, pH values, and glucose concentrations among others that need to be maintained if life has to exist: homeostasis is necessary in order to keep these conditions stable. On the other hand, biological systems rely on time management especially through circadian rhythms so as to schedule diverse activities like feeding, sleeping metabolism or reproduction.This introduction describes how an organism manages to control and regulate its internal processes in conjunction with environmental stimuli is what makes it possible for organisms to live long, and perform productive activities and also enjoy a healthy life.In the year of 1926, Walter Cannon coined the word “homeostasis” with reference to a process through which all organisms maintain stable internal environments regardless changes happening outside their bodies. The theory’s cornerstone was Claude Bernard’s proposition of ‘milieu intérieur’, meaning moderate conditions needed for the existence of an organism itself the basic concept of homeostasis in physiology consists of the complex regulatory mechanisms regulating temperature, glucose metabolism, water balance, pH levels and other systems. Restoring equilibrium
is achieved through perturbations that trigger some reactions from a reference point and mostly these are negative feedback loops for homeostatic processes. For instance, when pancreatic cells secrete insulin into the bloodstream after a meal because there is an incr

Introduction

During transition period and lactation, the high-producing dairy cows undergo a period of extensive tissue catabolism because of negative nutrient balance. Homeorrhetic mechanism at this stage ensures that nutrients are partitioned to favour the growth of fetus prepartum and meet the demand of nutrients in early lactation. Simultaneously the homeostasis secures survival of the animal body functions. However, a decline in feed intake in transition period leads to metabolic disturbances and low milk production in early lactation. The postpartum negative nutrient balance impairs immune and reproductive functions in dairy cows and buffaloes. The increased demand for nutrients and decreased dry matter intake results in low circulating glucose and insulin levels and elevated non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and ketone bodies postpartum. The energetic status of a cow or buffalo modulates the secretion of hormones that play key roles in growth of ovarian follicles, ovulation, corpus luteum (CL) formation, and oocyte competence. The NEBAL not only limits milk production potential but also has a detrimental effect on immune cells. Negative nutrient balance is associated with changes in the pattern of ovarian follicle growth and oocyte quality and alteration in endocrines. In addition, cows under negative nutrient balance have extended periods of anovulation. These changes could be minimized by supplementing energy rich supplements like prilled fat or any bypass fat preparations.

Introduction

For raising animal and its products especially protein, food and nutrition plays an important role. Feed cost comprises about 60% of total recurring expenditure. Feed additives play an increasingly important role in animal nutrition by augmenting the performance by maintaining the needs of essential nutrients, improving feed conversion therefore optimize feed utilization (Wenk, 2000). Feed additives are a group of feed ingredients that can cause a desired animal response in a non-nutrient role, such as rumen modifier, growth or metabolic modifier (Hutjens, 1991). These are used in micro quantities and require careful handling and mixing. The development and introduction of various new feed additives is a major and practical solution to improve the efficiency of animal production, to alleviate environmental pollution, to maintain animal health, welfare and to ensure the safe and of good quality food production.

Introduction

Hormones may be defined as specific chemical molecules produced in certain specific organs called specialized cells or endocrine glands. They are delivered into the blood stream or some other body fluid in minute amounts by the circulatory system of the body and their they exerts a physiological effect at a site of action remote from its origin, regulating numerous biological activities including growth, development, reproduction, water & electrolyte balance, storage & usage of energy etc.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why Oats are mostly preferred by horse?

Ans: Because oats are low in energy, rich in fibre (8-11%), very soft and easily ruptured duringmastication, highly palatable, rich in oil content (5%), better protein quality (high lysine), more readily digested in the S.I. than maize and barley and moreover it provides a more open textured material in the stomach due to high fibre and are thus least likely to cause colic compared to other cereals.

2.    Why wheat is most likely cereal to cause colic in horse?

Ans: Because of its high gluten content since gluten leads to the formation of doughy lump in the stomach. Hence wheat should not be used exceptin small quantities or in low levels.

3.    Why Excessive feeding of wheat bran leads to ‘Big head disease’ or ‘Millers disease’ in horse?

Ans: It is due to an imbalance ratio of Ca and P in this bran i.e high in P and low in Ca. So, due to a Ca deficiency, Ca is withdrawn from the bone and the bone is replaced by a proliferationof fibrous connective tissue whichismainlyfound in the skull or jaw.

Rabbits: Housed in mesh floor cages made of galvanized iron, aluminium or steel.

Cleaning should be done regularly (but not within the animal room). Clean feed, water should be given to animals to keep them free of diseases.

Guinea pig: In case of guinea pig, environmental factors play a very important role → Temperature, relative humidity, lighting and ventilation.

Temp → 18-21°C for all laboratory animals

Relative Humidity → 45-55%

Lighting → 12-16 hours for normal physiological activity.

Ventilation → Min 12-15 changes of air for animal room. This can be provided with the help of exhaust fan.

For guinea pig, temperature should not go beyond 30°C, because they cannot dissipate heat from body and they suffer from heat stress and heat frustration because they have loose fold of skin. Highly susceptible for respiratory infection, so adequate ventilation should be given.

They can be housed on wire mesh, floor, and cages. Also directly on floor provided with bedding material → paddy/ ragi straw. In some animal facilities they give saw dust as bedding material. For Guinea Pig saw dust should be given as bedding material as they get adhered to vulva that causes irritation and also it blocks the vulva. There will be reduction in fecundity of the animal →worst