eChapters

The success of a rabbitry depends heavily on the equipment and hutches used. Climate, location, and budget all play a role in determining the type of equipment needed. Before constructing the hutches, careful planning is necessary to minimize labor and ensure optimum working conditions. A clean and efficient layout should also be considered in order to provide an ideal environment for raising rabbits. With a wide range of hutch designs available, it is important to choose one that best suits the specific needs and purpose of the rabbitry.

Duck farming in India is characterized by nomadic, extensive, seasonal, and is still held in the hands of small and marginal farmers. Traditionally Assam, West Bengal and Kerala are the major consumer states for duck egg and meat and one of the reasons is that duck egg and meat highly suits and impart taste for their fish based culinary preparations.

Different housing system for Duck rearing

In general, ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well ventilated, dry, and rat proof. In semi-intensive system of rearing, the house should have easy access to outside run as the ducks prefer to come out during the day time, winter and rainy time. 

HOUSING OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

Objectives

The important criteria to be kept in mind for the construction of animal house are:

• Got to satisfy the requirements of animal care takers and animal technician whose place of work it is.
• Got to satisfy animals which are house in animal house.
• Research workers who conduct research on animal in the laboratory should be satisfied.

Materials required- Small animal house, Animal colonies, type of cages and equipments.

The success of rabbit farming depends upon the location and design of the rabbit house. Rabbit is a burrowing animal and has sharp reflexes. It is easily disturbed by any new and sudden noise. The farm should be located in a peaceful environment away from the hustle and bustle of human population.  A good housing facility with adequate arrangement of ventilation is the most important factor in rabbit house.

HOUSING

Dogs are kept in cages and they are tied with a chain in one corner of the house or left free in the house → but hair falling will be seen throughout → allergy.

House in wire mesh all round and wooden flooring → gives warmth to animal. Roof can be made of asbestos sheet.

Cage → 2 ft LX 3 ft BX4 ft H. This should be kept in a cool place.

With cement covering all round with mesh door asbestos roofing.

Dog is always chained. This should be long enough and strong enough to withstand pulling of animal. Along with this collar is provided with strong buckles.

Docile animals can be left free in the house → Pomerian, Dash hound, Dobberman should be chained.

Petting too much leads to transmission of diseases → parasite and allergy.

1 Human and Animal Interactions in the Ecosystem
1.1 Evolution

It is proved that humans and animals share common ancestors as per evolution process. Thus, it is likely that, animal capacities are similar to humans, but these capacities differ only in degree. Furthermore, if the capacity for a particular feeling gives an adaptive advantage to an animal, then this provides supportive evidence for its existence. The presence of very similar neurological structures in other animals constitutes some sort of evidence that they can have the same sorts of mental states as humans. In the process of evolution depending on the favourable and unfavourable environmental factors, few organisms may die and few organisms might multiply. The relationship between biotic and abiotic components helps in the formation of ecosystem. In this ecosystem each and every organisms have equal chance to survive. The evolution process is well explained by Darwin’s theory.

Introduction

Nutrition, a basic human need, is a critical part of health and development. Nutrition can be defined as the intake of food, deliberated in relation to the body’s dietary needs. On one hand, good nutrition – an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a foundation of good health, whereas,poor nutritionleads toreducedproductivity,impairedmental andphysical development, increased susceptibility to disease, and reducedimmunity. According to WHO, under-nutrition, together with vitamin and mineral deficiencies accounts for one-third of all child deaths and impairs healthy development and lifelong productivity. At the same time, sedentary lifestyles, demographic shifts, urbanization and the liberalization of markets have steered the world population to being overweight along with risk of chronic diseases like hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronaryheart disease, stroke, etc.; thus, resulting in a double burden of malnutrition.

To address this dual burden of malnutrition, individuals needaccess to sufficient and good quality food; but focussing solely on food security is unlikely to solve the problem of global malnutrition. The challenges of malnutrition cannot be solvedjustbyincreasingfoodproductioninordertoimprove healthand nutritional status of the population. To resolve such challenges, awareness about food choices for optimal health plays a pivotal role among population.

Human nutrition is the science of understanding food; its component; intake; and how it is related to health, growth, development and diseases. Human nutrition involves the study of ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of the nutrients; their metabolic functions, deficiency or excess disease as well as their regulation through several factors such as choosing particular food components/nutraceuticals or physical activity.

Poultry hatchery is a place where the hatching egg is transformed into a one day old chick, during 21 days. The environment of a poultry hatchery is very susceptible to contamination by microorganisms which can adversely affect hatchability of the eggs and can result in embryonic deaths. E. coli, Staphylococcus species, Streptococcus species, Aspergillus fumigates and Pseudomonas species are mainly isolated from hatchery and it adversely affects chick quality and cause embryonic deaths. Poor standards of hatchery hygiene may lead ultimately to an explosion of pathogenic organisms resulting in severe economic loss.

The ruminoreticulum, part of the ruminant digestive system, plays a pivotal role in food processing, fermentation and nutrient absorption in animals such as cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and deer. This compartmentalized stomach, comprising the rumen and reticulum, is critical for fermentative digestion, enabling ruminants to utilize fibrous plant materials. While its normal function is essential for health and productivity, hyperactivity of the ruminoreticulum can significantly impact an animal’s well-being, physiology, and economic value in agricultural contexts.
Structure and function of the ruminoreticulum
The ruminoreticulum is a fermentation chamber harbouring billions of microorganisms, including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. It is designed to break down complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, into volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which provide a significant portion of a ruminant’s energy. The coordinated motility of the rumen and reticulum ensures proper mixing of ingested feed with saliva and microbes, enhancing fermentation efficiency.
Rhythmic contractions of the ruminoreticulum known as primary and secondary cycles, aid in mixing, stratification of digesta, and eructation of fermentation gases. When these contractions increase in frequency or intensity beyond physiological norms, it constitutes hyperactivity of the ruminoreticulum.

Hyperthermia is a condition in which an animal’s body temperature rises above the normal range, often due to excessive environmental heat or a failure in the body’s thermoregulation mechanisms. Unlike fever, where the body actively increases its temperature in response to infection, hyperthermia results from external or internal factors that overwhelm the body’s ability to dissipate heat. This condition is life-threatening and requires prompt recognition and treatment to prevent severe organ damage or death.
The normal body temperature of animals varies across species. For example, dogs and cats typically maintain a body temperature of 101°F to 102.5°F, while livestock like horses and cattle have average temperatures of around 99°F to 101.5°F. Hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature exceeds these ranges, potentially leading to heat exhaustion or heatstroke.
Types of hyperthermia
1. Heat stress/ heat exhaustion: A mild to moderate rise in temperature, accompanied by symptoms like panting, lethargy, or drooling.
2. Heatstroke: A severe and potentially fatal rise in body temperature that causes multi-organ dysfunction or failure.
Causes of hyperthermia
Hyperthermia in animals can occur due to various factors:
1. Environmental heat: Prolonged exposure of animals to high temperatures especially in humid conditions where evaporative cooling (panting or sweating) is less effective. Being left in hot cars or confined
spaces without adequate ventilation.
2. Physical overexertion: Excessive exercise or work, particularly in hot weather, can lead to hyperthermia. Breeds with thick coats or brachycephalic (flat-faced) animals like Bulldogs and Persian cats are
especially prone due to reduced cooling efficiency.

Hypocalcaemia, commonly referred to as milk fever, is a metabolic disorder in dairy animals, particularly high-producing cows, that occurs due to low calcium levels in the blood (serum calcium less than 8 mg/dl in cows). It predominantly affects animals in the peri-parturient period, as the demand for calcium for colostrum and milk synthesis outpaces the body’s ability to maintain adequate blood calcium levels. The disorder not only affects animal welfare but also results in significant economic losses due to reduced milk production, fertility issues, and increased veterinary costs. Nutritional management plays a pivotal role in preventing and controlling milk fever, making it a key focus for dairy farmers and veterinarians.
Hypocalcaemia in specific species
1. Ruminants (Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats)
Milk fever (Peri-parturient hypocalcaemia): Commonly affects dairy animals around calving.
2. Small animals (Dogs and Cats) Eclampsia (Puerperal tetany): Seen in lactating bitches and queens. It results from excessive calcium loss through milk. Clinical signs: Restlessness, panting, and muscle tremors, tetany, seizures, and hyperthermia if untreated.

Hypothermia is a life-threatening condition that occurs when an animal’s body loses heat faster than it can produce it, causing its core temperature to drop below normal levels. Animals, like humans, rely on maintaining a stable internal temperature to function. This condition can affect pets, livestock, and wildlife, and understanding its causes, effects, and treatment is critical for their survival and well-being. In animals, body temperature varies by species. For example, the average temperature for dogs and cats ranges from 101°F to 102.5°F, while for livestock like cows, it is around 101.5°F. Hypothermia occurs when their body temperature falls below these ranges, impairing physiological processes and potentially leading to organ failure.
Stages of hypothermia
Mild hypothermia: A slight drop in body temperature, with symptoms like shivering, lethargy, and a cold nose or extremities. Moderate hypothermia: A significant temperature drop that can result in muscle stiffness, weak pulse, and slowed breathing.
Severe hypothermia: Critical condition where the animal may lose consciousness, and the heart rate and breathing slow dramatically, potentially leading to death.

Before trying to understand Hypothesis Testing and Experimental Designs, we should be conversant with the concept of Probability Distribution.

5.1 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Let us look at an example to grasp the essence of a probability distribution. Let us rotate a pair of dice and observe the sum by totalling the numbers that turn upon in both the dice. Let us call this sum by a random variable X. When the first dice shows up number 1, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Likewise, when the first dice shows up number 2, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If we continue the experiment this way until all the possibilities are exhausted, the sample space will contain 36 elements. The distribution that can be observed will contain a sum = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12. The starting sum will be = 2, because when both the dice show the number 1, the sum 1 + 1 = 2. Likewise, the maximum sum in the distribution will be 12, when both the dice show up a number 6. If we write the values of the random variable (sum) with associated probabilities, it is called a probability distribution.

IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS

It has been in practice since long, not recent item in livestock farming. In earlier day’s in Egyptian era, people used to mark the animal to identify their animals. But in recent days, due to development in bio-medical science where usage of animal has increased within turn has become necessary to establish a suitable identification method for various species of animal. There are many methods available to identified animal, however the methods employed should be simple, economical and easy to identify animal and should be harmless to animal, quickly applicable and should be suitable to experiment conducted.

Identification / familiarization of various feed ingredients: As per National Research Council (N. R. C.), there are 8 main groups of feedstuffs. (1) Dry forages and roughages; All forage and roughage cut and cured are included in this category. These are bulky feeds with low digestibility. Crude fibre is more than 18 % and Total digestible is less than 60 % because of high cell wall contents. For example: dry grass (hay), wheat straw, paddy straw, oat straw, stovers (aerial part without ears), husk (maize) or aerial part without heads (sorghum), hulls and shells. (2) Pasture range plants, tree leaves and forages; Roughage either harvested or without harvesting (fresh) are included in this group. For example: pasture grass, range plants, tree leaves, green forages (legume and non – legume). (3) Silage; only ensiled forages are included. For example: legume non – legume silages. (4) Energy or basal feeds; Feeds are of low protein content, having crude protein less than 20 %, crude fibre less than 18 % and Total digestible nutrients more than 60 %. For example: cereal grains, milk by – products, fruits, nuts, roots etcetera; (5) Protein supplements; Feeds are of high protein , more than 20 %, crude fibre less than 18 % and Total digestible nutrients more than 60 %. For example: animal, marine, avian, and plant products. Meat meal, fish meal, oil seeds, and their cakes etcetera; (6) Mineral supplements; These are natural or pure elements. For example: composite mineral mixture or specific mineral supplements; (7) Vitaminsupplements; These are natural or pu e forms. For example: composite vitamin  pre–mix or specific vitamin supplements; (8) Feed additives; these are for improving efficiency of utilization of feeds. Number of examples have been cited elsewhere in this book [theoretical part above].

Blood Sample collection

Blood samples (5 ml per goat) will be collected aseptically from the jugular vein in a vacutainer tube (B.D. Bioscience, Germany) containing EDTA as anticoagulant and transferred to the laboratory in an ice box.

Isolation of Genomic DNA

The Genomic DNA will be isolated from the blood samples by ‘Phenol: chloroform isolation’ method as described by Sambrook and Russel (2001). The steps for isolation of genomic DNA are as follows:

Introduction

To improve the growth and health status, addition of antibiotics in the poultry feed was a common practice in last decade. Currently, in developed countries it is banned due to fatal consequences like development of antimicrobial resistant organism pool in the gut, persistence of antibiotic residue in the food chain that can reduce the food safety level. Therefore, various alternatives are now a day thought to use as poultry feed additives. Immunomodulaors are presently receiving wide attention as feed additives.

The term ‘immunomodulation’ is generally used to describe the manipulation of immune system which consists either increase (immunostimulation) or decrease (immunosuppression) in the magnitude of the immune system function. The chemicals or biological substances producing this phenomenon are known as ‘immunomodulators’. Specific immunomodulation involves the change in the immune response with a particular antigen (e.g. vaccination). Whereas, non-specific immunomodulation alters the immune response in such a way so that it become sensitive to a wide range of antigens. Generally this kind of non-specific immunomodulators are used as poultry feed additive to increase the resistance against the wide range of infections. The principal components of the immune system targeted for immunomodulation include T cells, B cells, monocytes, macrophages, granulocytes and natural killer cells (Dalloul and Lillehoj, 2005).

Introduction

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate change refers to the long-term changes (typically decades or longer) in the average state of the climate with statistically significant variations.

The climate change, defined as the long-term imbalance of customary weather conditions such as temperature, radiation, wind and rainfall characteristics of a particular region, is likely to be one of the main challenges for mankind during the present century.

A general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties (principally the man and spread) of the climate system when considered over long periods.

Climate Resilience

Climate resilience can be generally defined as the capacity for a socioecological system to: Absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change. Adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts.

Introduction

Birds lack sweat glands; hence non-evaporative cooling mechanism (radiation, conduction and convection) is the major route of heat dissipation within thermoneutral range. Beyond this TNZ, majority of heat loss occurs as insensible heat loss i.e., Panting. Panting is one of the visible responses in poultry during exposure to heat stress associated with considerable energy expenditure. This specialized form of respiration dissipates heat by evaporative cooling at the surface of the mouth and respiratory passage. Panting increase, the loss of CO2 from the lungs, this leads to a reduction in the partial pressure of CO2 and also reduces bicarbonate levels in blood plasma. In turn, the lowered concentration of hydrogen ions leads to rise in plasma pH, a condition generally referred to alkalosis (Daghir, 2009). Birds also respond by reducing their feed intake and thus metabolizable energy (ME) intake to reduce thermo genesis as an adoptive mechanism. If panting fails to prevent their body temperatures from rising, the birds become listless, comatose and soon die due to respiratory, circulatory or electrolyte imbalances (Saif et al., 2003).

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of animals and has a great potential for causing severe economic losses in susceptible cloven-hoofed animals. FMD has been classified as a Transboundary Animal Disease (TAD) which is highly contagious or transmissible and has the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, and causing serious socio-economic consequences. FMD has constituted a recognised threat to the health of livestock for over 500 years and still remains a serious hazard to the productivity of animal populations throughout the world. The large numbers of virus serotypes and subtypes, the ease of transmission and the limited efficacy of vaccination make control complicated and difficult. Contribution of environmental variables for emergence and distribution of infectious diseases has long been recognized by many researchers. India is largely subject to four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to December). There are reports on effect of environmental parameters such as relative humidity, windspeed and air temperature on the spread of the disease. FMD is endemic and at a high prevalence in many countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia and is also present in parts of South America. Europe, North and Central America, the Pacific nations and the Caribbean are free from the disease. FMD in India is the biggest impediment to growth of livestock sector. FMD outbreaks occur in India throughout the year. The outbreaks occurred round the year with maximum occurrence during October to March, and in May and June (Fig. 15.1). Foot and mouth disease is associated with an aphthovirus (family picornaviridae) which occurs as seven major serotypes: A,O,C,SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 and Asia1. FMD is characterized by fever, profuse salivation, vesicles in the mouth and on the feet and a drastic reduction in milk production; sudden death in young stock may occur (Radostits et al., 2006).