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The influence of the vagaries of weather on all species on the earth is ubiquitious. It exerts its profound influence on the health, moods and activities of the humans, on all the Agriculture operations right from the seeding stage to the harvesting stage and on the health, behaviour and production of the animal life. Crop growth, is influenced by the variation of the meteorological parameters such as temperature, rainfall and wind etc. It is estimated that in some countries the losses due to adverse weather conditions amount to as much as 30% of the annual agricultural production. This type of losses, many times prove disastrous in the countries whose economy is mainly agriculture based, like that of ours. While the favourable weather conditions increase crop yield, the adverse weather, damages the crop giving rise to very low yield. The weather elements play an important role in governing the crop performance. Similarly weather elements also found to be controlling the Livestock production. It hence becomes necessary for the agriculturists and the veterinarians to have some basic knowledge of Meteorology to get better equipped for problem solving in their respective fields. All the weather phenomenon whether beneficial or disastrous are enacted in the natural theatre which is called the atmosphere. Hence to start with one has to study the characteristics of the atmosphere before proceeding further in meteorology.

The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth?s surface, which is retained by the earth?s gravity. The atmosphere protects life on the earth by absorbing ultra violet solar radiation and reduces the temperature extremes between the day and night. The atmosphere has no abrupt cut-off. It slowly becomes thinner and fades away into space. There is no finite boundary between the atmosphere and space. Three quarters of the atmosphere by mass is within 11 km of the planetary surface. In fact half of the atmosphere is contained within 6km from the surface. The Karman line, at 100 km is frequently used as the boundary between the atmosphere and space. The atmosphere contains by volume roughly 78% nitrogen and 21% of oxygen, trace amount of other gases and water vapour. This mixture of gases is known as air. The atmosphere also contains water vapour in smaller quantities. The amount of all these gases except water vapour is more or less constant while the water vapour is highly variable and yet its presence is essential for the development of any weather phenomenon. Based on the thermal characteristics, chemical composition, movement and density, the atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers. They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere & thermosphere. The first 64–80 km above the earth contains 99% of the total mass of the earth?s atmosphere and is generally of a uniform composition, except for a high concentration of ozone, known as the ozone layer, at 12–30 mi (19–50 km). Because of the pull of gravity the density of the atmosphere and the pressure exerted by air molecules are greatest near the earth?s surface. Air pressure decreases quickly with altitude, reaching one half of its value at about 5.5Km. The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m³. The atmospheric density decreases as altitude increases.

Domestication of animals was followed by the provision of shelters for protection which also modified the climate to suit the species housed for improving the productivity and reproductive efficiency. Climate is the long term average condition of the meteorological variables in a given region. The climate is divided into macro climate and micro climate. Macro climate is the general large scale climatic conditions of the open atmosphere in a large area. Micro-climate is the climatic conditions directly surrounding the animal or the physical environment in the immediate vicinity of the animal. The environment includes all the combination of conditions under which the animal lives. The immediate variables that affect the production and reproduction of animals are its micro climatic variables. The animals have requirements of their own. The environment influences where and how animal lives. Domestication has resulted in man dictating where and how animal lives. Thus breeds of livestock evolved in temperate regions have been introduced into tropical area with high rainfall, humidity and temperatures. Homeotherms are a group of animals which maintain their deep body temperature essentially constant. All the domestic animals are homeotherms. In the case of an inert body, basic thermodynamic forces establishes an equilibrium in which the body attains the same temperature of the surrounding environment. The same law applies to homeothermic animals also. Therefore, these animals will have to make compensatory physiological and behavioural adjustments to keep a constant deep-body temperature. While digestion of food takes place in the body of animals, a portion of the energy in the feed is converted into heat. This metabolic heat plus the heat gained from the environment through conduction, convection and radiation results in excess heat gain to the animal, which has to be dissipated, if heat balance is to be maintained. For this the animal depends on various physiological and behavioural functions. This balancing act by which a constant normal core temperature is maintained is known as homeothermy. Heat production is regulated by hormonal secretions, changes in muscle tone, shivering and by voluntary muscular activity. Heat loss is controlled by vasodialatation, increasing the cutaneous circulation and evaporative loss. The animal reduces its feed intake as well as production, drink more water. In long term the hair coat becomes lighter with less insulation. The animal will also exhibit postural changes and behavioural adjustments. They will try to increase surface area, reduce physical activity and seek shade.

There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal?s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy. High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. These readjustments, generally referred to as adaptations, may be favorable or unfavorable to economic interests of humans, but are essential for survival of the animal. Thus, an increase in air temperature, such as that expected in different scenarios of climate change, would affect directly animal performance by affecting animal heat balance. Potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not been thoroughly explored. Changes in crop availability and quality, which have been the primary focus of previous studies, affect animal production through changes in feed supplies. Analyses of direct impacts of climate change on livestock production are few. Changes in climate would directly lead to reductions in summer season milk production and conception rates in dairy cows. Because voluntary feed intake (VFI) is the primary factor influencing the production capacity of livestock, accurate prediction of the feed consumption of livestock under heat stress is a precursor to accurate assessment of changes in production resulting from changes to a warmer climate. Quantification of potential impacts of climate change on livestock production allows producers to gain a better understanding of the magnitude of the changes in production levels faced under climate change. Projected economic losses resulting from temperature-induced reductions in production may justify mitigation of these temperature increases through changes in management practices, such as installation of shades or sprinklers in feedlots or evaporative cooling of barns. With severe economic losses predicted in livestock as a result of climate change, it?s very essential to understand the different intricacies of climate and its impact on livestock production. This will help us to prepare ourselves better for ameliorating the adverse impact of weather parameters on animal production. This will intern prevent the severe economic losses incurred in livestock industry as a result of changing climate.

Output of dairy products from animals, output from the poultry, goats, sheep, exotic birds, animal growth, their living environments and diseases affecting them, are known to be governed by weather conditions. Development of quantitative climate-animal relationships and efficient utilization of daily weather data for monitoring the various aspects, continues to be a significant research priority. Traditionally the major climatic factors on which attention has been focused are: temperature, humidity, solar radiation and length of day. The effects of these climatic elements on reaction of animal physiological parameters have been studied by measurements of (a) animal?s ability to prevent heat loss by such means as increased evaporative cooling from the body surface, (b) its ability to reduce heat production by lowering its metabolic rate through more efficient energy utilization (c) its ability to put up with a rise in body temperature or with the consequences of compensatory reactions. Experiments are usually done in climate chambers since field measurements often involve difficulties of interpretation in separating out the effects of climate from those of nutrition. Water consumption, water intake, insensible perspiration (diffusion moisture, different from the moisture which is actively secreted), protein intake, intra- and extra cellular volumes, plasma and blood volumes, body temperature, respiratory activity etc., of animals are all known to be affected in relation to changes in air temperature and humidity. Airflow also is an adjutant factor since it affects temperature and humidity. Significant seasonal changes have also been frequently recorded. These in turn, have profound effect on output of milk yield and several other animal products. Development of predictive techniques for assessment of milk yield or other products had been recognized as a thrust area, so as to develop suitable and viable strategies for storage; transport, marketing and distribution of several livestock products. Several gross relationships between climate and its influence on physiological and biochemical aspects of animal behaviour have been worked out in the past on seasonal basis but a more intensive study on short period stress effects on the output products in relation to prediction of output is the need of the hour. For pursuing research on these aspects, an appropriate understanding of the specific meaning and use of terminology such as ?thresholds?, ?optima?, ?normal?, ?extreme events? in more detail is considered appropriate. Methods of analysis also need to be addressed and evolved.

The science of Meteorology is defined as the science that deals with physical and chemical processes of the lower atmosphere. The physical and chemical changes in the lower atmosphere produce weather and popularly known as the weather science. The weather science concerns the study of structure, state and behaviour of the lower atmosphere. It is essentially an observational science dealing with different atmospheric variables such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind, humidity, density, cloud amount, radiation, precipitation and related variables at a given moment and attempts to predict the behaviour of atmosphere over a period of few hours to few days ahead and disseminate the same in time to the users? community. The statistical approach of weather phenomena deals with the mean state of the physical properties of atmosphere. This branch of science is popularly known as Climatology. The weather science can be categorized into several branches based on method of approach, purpose and function, scale and region. Based on the purpose and function, it can be divided into several branches like Livestock Meteorology, Agro Meteorology, Forest Meteorology, Hydro Meteorology and Bio-Meteorology (Fig 1.1).

NATIONAL LEVEL FACILITIES OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

• National Laboratory Animal Centre, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow.
• National Centre for Laboratory Animal Sciences (NCLAS) National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

INSTITUTIONAL LABORATORY ANIMAL FACILITIES AT

The term Anesthesia means loss of sensation.

GENERAL ANESTHESIA

In the technique of anesthesia, a drug is capable of causing loss of sensation together with loss of consciousness, sufficient to allow a surgical operation to be carried out.

Routes of General Anesthesia (G.A.)
Inhalation

Ether, Nitrous oxide, Halothane, Chloroform etc.

Reproductive is fundamental property of living beings. While lower animals reproduce by simple methods, the higher animals attain greater degree of animals reproduce by complexities in the reproductive functions. Basic units (Gonads) of males and females are testis and ovaries respectively. The gonads of each sex perform dual roles:

• Formation of gametes (sperms by testis and ovum by the ovaries)
• Production of hormones.

Role of Hormones in Reproduction

Accurately in the clinical diagnosis of a disease in experimental animals frequently depends on the result of laboratory examination of blood specimen from the diseased animals. A prerequisite for good experiment result is the proper collection and handling of the blood samples. If properly collected samples can not be sent to the laboratory quickly. It must be preserved or stored in such a manner that the necessary tests may be conducted. The technician/researchers

Going to collect the blood from a laboratory animal should be aware of the purpose of blood collection, the sites of blood collection, the technique of blood collection, the Use of various anti coagulants, the techniques of blood examination.

Blood Examination of Animal may be Necessary

ETHICS OF ANIMAL USE IN RESEARCH

• The use of animals in scientific research is a controversial issue. Animals have been used throughout the history for anatomical and physiological research as well as for testing toxic substances.
• Many medical advances, including vaccines for polio and rabies, the development of certain antibiotics, anti cancer agents and transplant medicine have been developed by using animals in research.
• But the question is whether it is right or wrong to use animals for these purposes.
• All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with.
• From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at institutional level and finally at the national level.

What are Ethics ?

INTRODUCTION

Rabbit production is the upcoming livestock farming throughout the world. The domestic rabbit are raised meat, fur –skins and wool. Climatic condition of Karnataka are not favourable for raising wool breeds of rabbits, but are definitely well for broiler rabbit production.

Rabbits require less space for housing and highly prolific. Initial investment for rabbits farming is very less and maintenance cost is also very low. There is no religious barriers in rabbit meet consumption and rabbit meat contains very low cholesterol when compared to the other meats.

Rabbit farming can be very well fit into mixed farming systems. It can be adopted by small and marginal for maximum utilization of lands and resources, and to derive substantial income under rural condition.

Important by product from Rabbit are meat, wool, planner and skin. It can be made highly profitable if products are properly processed and marketed. Many rabbit products are wasted because people do not have enough knowledge about their processing. Rabbit farming is profitable preservation of its by-product.

Slaughtering: Know when and how.

Slaining: Familiar with how to remove skin and carcass preparation and processing. How the skin has to be processed into a product from the skin obtained.

Manure: Know how to collect and preserve it.

Introduction

Germfree (GF) animal is one which is isolated from all demonstrable living microorganisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite, algae, yeast. The aim of GF work is isolation (Prevent contamination from air, water, food and environment). It can be attained mechanically and scientifically. GF animal research began in 1895 but in 1897 Nuttall and Thierfelder started to rear GF guinea pigs in their lab. Chicks are classical animal for GF research. Rats and mice are reared through reproduction. Permanent breeding colonies of these have been established.

Synonyms : Axenic animal –meaning free from strange. Gnotobiotic – known life derived from Greek word-Gnoto & biota means known flora & fauna.

Gnotobiote (Gnotobiotic animal ) : Is an animal derived by aseptic caesarian or sterile tatching of eggs that is restored & continuously maintained with Germ free technique under isolator condition in which flora & fauna is clearly defined.

Flora animal: A gnotobiote maintained under isolator condition in international association with one or more known types of microorganisms.

Committee recognized throughout world on laboratory animal called International Committee on Laboratory Animal (ICLA) This committee is responsible to make the rules and regulations and laws which governs production, maintenance and usage of laboratory animal. This committee has defined Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) animal which are free of specified micro organisms and parasites but not necessarily free of the ones which are not specified. Example pasteurella free SPF animal.

Synonyms of SPF Animals

• Disease free animal
• Healthy animal
• Pathogen free animal
• Clean animal
• Caesarian derived animal

The main aim for the production of GFA is for isolation of animal free of all organism.

Objectives

To acquaint with the various methods of sterilization and disinfection used in laboratory animals.

Materials Required

Boiler, autoclave, hot air oven, chemical disinfection.

Sterilization

It is a process of the complete removal or destruction of living organisms including viruses, vegetative forms and spores. Sterilization is an absolute term. Nothing can be “partially sterile’’, either, it is or it is ‘not’. An article must be protected from recontamination after sterilization.

Objectives

• To keep the laboratory animal house neat and clean
• To maintain healthy stock

The disease may be bacterial, viral, fungal or of parasitic origin. All the measures taken to reduce growth and also to control spread of pathogenic organism is a sanitary measure like ventilation, building without cracks crevices.

Important aspect of good sanitation is insect control or pest control. Most effective measure is to just chase them out. To achieve this :

COMPOSITION OF DIET

Objectives

• To study the general considerations on feeding aspects of laboratory animals.
• To get acquainted with the specific nutritional requirements of laboratory manures.
• To familiarize with the watering system.
• To know the daily feed schedule of different species of laboratory animal.

Materials Required

Laboratory animals, feed ingredients, water, green vegetables.

For having good growth and production, proper balanced diet should be fed, thus nutrients can be classified into 6 classes:

RECORD KEEPING

Objectives

• To carry out the routine activities of animal house
• Breeding of animals

Materials required- Different types of record

Proper record keeping is very important and it is also highly essential to carry out the animal house activity in a systematic manner. The records should be simple, complete and should preferably be computer compatible.

The records are kept and maintained in different forms. Unnecessary information should be avoided in these records. The records of breeding, experimental animal and morality of animals are highly essential. Other records are:

IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS

It has been in practice since long, not recent item in livestock farming. In earlier day’s in Egyptian era, people used to mark the animal to identify their animals. But in recent days, due to development in bio-medical science where usage of animal has increased within turn has become necessary to establish a suitable identification method for various species of animal. There are many methods available to identified animal, however the methods employed should be simple, economical and easy to identify animal and should be harmless to animal, quickly applicable and should be suitable to experiment conducted.

HOUSING OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

Objectives

The important criteria to be kept in mind for the construction of animal house are:

• Got to satisfy the requirements of animal care takers and animal technician whose place of work it is.
• Got to satisfy animals which are house in animal house.
• Research workers who conduct research on animal in the laboratory should be satisfied.

Materials required- Small animal house, Animal colonies, type of cages and equipments.