eChapters

There are 3 types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over, but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories. [a] Digestive Nutrient Type: For example, Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like – carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Hence only faecal energy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence, roughages are overestimated by such calculations. Otherwise, this method is simple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard. The TDN value is expressed in % age as following - % TDN = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fibre + % digestible nitrogen free extractives + [% digestible ether extract x 2.25]. where Nitrogen Free Extractives = 100 – [crude protein % + ether extract % + crude fibre % + ash %] on dry matter basis.
[b] Production value type: For example, Starch Equivalent (S.E.) system originated from Germany, hence followed in those areas of Europe and takes into account almost all the losses involved in digestion of feed. The method is based on Carbon – Nitrogen balance studies without the help of any costly equipment, but faced some criticism too. The animals were kept in big animal calorimeter, where different sources of energy losses could be determined to the best of their ability. When it was ensured that the ration on which the animals were neither gaining nor losing weight (by measuring the intake and outgo of both carbon and nitrogen), then pure starch, straw pulp, that is, cellulose, wheat gluten (protein) and oil were added to this diet and determined the carbon and nitrogen separately again. Feeds for productive purposes are measured in terms of starch values. S.E. = Weight of fat stored per unit of feed / weight of fat stored per unit of starch x 100. That is, amount of feed required to produce as much animal fat as is being produced by unit amount of starch, when fed in addition to maintenance. For example, if linseed cake has got SE of 75, which means that 100 kgs of linseed cake can produce as much fat as 75 kgs of pure starch, when fed in addition to maintenance ration.

Points to ponder
• Minerals are naturally formed substances in earth. They are typically solid, inorganic, have crystal structure formed by geological processesnaturally. They may consist of single chemical element or a  compound more usually. They are identified by these characteristics: colour, streak, hardness, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, magnetism, solubility.
• Colour in minerals: Its result of brain’s interpretation of the dominant wavelength of light. “Minerals are coloured, because certain wavelengths of incident light are absorbed and the colour we perceive is produced by the remaining wavelengths that were not absorbed”. Some minerals are colourless.
• The mineral is an essential element which has a metabolic role in the body and if not provided in the diet, can cause deficiency symptoms, which can be prevented by adding that element to the diet. Animal body contains about 3% minerals, which are constant constituents of animal tissue.
• Classification is based on the amount required by the animals. Major elements are required in large amounts and are expressed in % age, whereas minor or trace elements are required in small amounts and hence expressed in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) or even parts per trillion (ppt) …. so on and so forth, depending on discovery of new trace element.
• They have following significant role in the cattle: health, production, reproduction, defense.

8.1 NEED FOR ANIMAL DISEASE FREQUENCY MEASURES

The very essence of veterinary epidemiology is to measure animal disease occurrence and to make comparisons between the animal population groups. The animal disease frequency measures help us to understand the distribution of diseases in animal populations. Hence, the principal role of veterinary epidemiology is to describe and explain differences in the distribution of animal diseases between the populations.

Measures of the disease frequencies are used to describe how common an illness is concerning the size of the population (the population at risk) at a particular point in time. The major reason for determining the morbidity is to assess the extent of a disease problem in a population. This assessment is possible only when the number of diseased animals is calculated and compared with the total number of animals in the population. A report of 10 cases of mastitis in a dairy herd does not indicate the true extent of the disease problem, unless the report also indicates the total number of dairy animals in the herd or population. Thus, it is important to relate the number of cases of a disease to the population at risk of developing that disease.

General Definitions

    1.    Colour : Colour is the name for all sensations arising from the activity of the retina of the eye and its nervous mechanisms, this activity being a specific response to radiant energy of certain wavelength and intensities. Colour is basically psychological and is not synonymous with wavelength.

    2.    Lambert’s law : Which states that the proportion of radiant energy absorbed by a substance is independent of the intensity of the incident light.

    3.    Beer’s law : Which states that the proportion light absorbed depends only on the total number of absorbing molecules through which it passes independently of their concentration.

    4.    Extinction : Extinction is the logarithmic ratio of the intensity of the incident light to that of the emergent light.

Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, liver, brain, bone marrow, kidney, or lung. Meat is a nutrient dense food. Meat contains protein, fat, enzymes, vitamins and minerals for proper human nutrition. Goats are important producer of meat besides milk, fiber and skin. Goat meat is lower in calories, total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol, than traditional meats.Goat have number of characteristics , such as high reproductive potential , short generation interval , ability to thrive on shrubs, bushes and tree leaves, high digestive efficiency for cellulose and less susceptibility to infectious diseases, that make them suitable as meat producing livestock. Since these animals are more concentrated in the developing part of the world, they play a major role in subsistence agriculture of developing economies of poor and marginal farmers inhabiting such countries. More than 95 % of goats are concentrated in dry tropical and subtropical areas of poor agricultural potential and even on marginal lands of the world (Morand Fehr and Boyazoglu, 1999). Goat has several other advantages as producer of meat which make it predominant and preferred animal for meat production. Often because of the above mentioned reason, goat meat is sold two to three times costlier as compared to pork in India. Beef is unavailable in India with the exception of Kerala and West Bengal. Goat meat has an edge over mutton too, as the number of goats slaughtered for meat purposes (40%) far exceeds the number of sheep slaughtered for similar purposes. The slaughter rate of goat is at the level of 39.7 % as compared to 31.8% for sheep and 11% for buffaloes, respectively. Sheep and goat meat are both called “mutton” in India. Goats convert the poor quality roughage, browse tree leaves, which would have otherwise gone waste, into valuable source of protein in several desert or hostile areas of the world where other classes of livestock like cattle and buffalo will starve to death. Goat meat production and consumption has an important place in the economy of Asian and African countries. Goats have been recognized as an important source of meat in the rural areas of these countries. Commercial meat-goat enterprises account for majority of the meat-goat production systems and herd sizes range from five to several thousand does. Prolificacy, milk production and pre-weaning growth are important in achieving good productivity of commercial meat production enterprises.

This procedure allows us to mix two feed stuffs with different nutrient concentrations and come up with a mixture of the desired total concentration. For this square to work, the desired diet nutrient concentration must be between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed stuffs as well as in the same unit. The procedure can be used for Crude Protein, Energy, Minerals and so on and so forth.Also, in place of percentage, calories, parts per million/ billion / trillion and other units of measurement can be used.

Double Pearson Square Method

Sometimes, we might want to have the exact amounts of two major nutrients such as - Crude Protein and Energy.

For example, suppose we want a final mixture with 12 % Crude Protein (CP) and 74 % Total Digestible Nutrient (T.D.N.). We have :

Cabbage semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea :Noctuidae

Eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  The emerging larvae feed as a scraper initially and then feed voraciously on the leaves. The larva is greenish and hence not easily noticed initially. But when patches of damage occur in the crop, examine for the larvae and remove and destroy all the larvae. Chemical control is not advisable, and spraying extracts of other aromatic plants can deter egg laying very well.

Metabolic disorders in cattle, such as Milk Fever, Ketosis, Fat Cow Syndrome, and Hypomagnesaemia, affect dairy cows post-calving, disrupting blood metabolites and health. Triggers include diet changes, calving stress, and mineral deficiencies. Untreated, these disorders can lead to mild discomfort or severe complications.
Metabolic diseases are most prevalent in high-producing dairy cows due to the breeding and feeding practices aimed at maximizing milk yield. The period from calving to peak lactation is particularly susceptible to these conditions due to the high turnover of fluids and organic materials. The transition period, defined as 3 weeks before and after calving, is crucial for managing nutrient requirements and preventing metabolic disorders.
As milk production per cow has increased over the years, the complexity of nutrition and management for high-producing cows has also risen. The shift from forage-based to concentrate-rich diets at calving challenges rumen adaptation and can lead to negative energy balance. Balancing milk yield and reproduction becomes a critical aspect of dairy farming success.
Given the interconnected nature of these disorders, herd health management strategies are essential for prevention. Regular monitoring and understanding of metabolic diseases are vital for the successful operation of a dairy farm.
Milk Fever
Milk fever, also known as parturient paresis or hypocalcaemia, is a prevalent metabolic disorder in high-producing dairy animals worldwide. This condition primarily affects dairy cows close to calving and is caused by a low level of calcium in the blood (hypocalcaemia). It is a result of dietary errors and can lead to decreased productivity and economic losses for farmers. Milk fever is a significant concern for dairy industry professionals as it can significantly affect milk production, reproduction, and overall herd health.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What are metabolic diseases?

Ans: It is defined as disturbances of the internal homeostasis of the body brought about by an abnormal change in the rate of one or more critical metabolic processes.

2.    How do you prevent milk fever by nutritional management?

Ans: By providing a ration that contains 0.5-0.7% Ca and 0.3-0.4% P and by feeding 20 Million Units of vitamin D/cow/ day starting about 5 days before calving and continue for maximum7 days postpartum.

3.    What is the nutritional management strategy to prevent grass tetany?

Ans: A salt lick of 10 parts each of MgSO₄ and Ca(PO₄)₂ with 80 parts of salt is effective. Besides a mixture of 2 parts of MgO and 1 part salt is also effective measure.

4.    Write down the preventive measures of ketosis?

Diseases of metabolic origin are commonly known as metabolic disease viz., bloat, acidosis, milk fever, hypomagnesimia, pregnancy toxaemia etc. However, few common metabolic diseases encountered in herd/ flock management are discussed in the chapter. Among these diseases bloat, acidosis and ketosis are generally occurs due dysfunction in rumen. In the rumen, microbial fermentation occurs due to unique structures and environment. Microbes converts fibrous feeds which are of no use for human beings to important product viz., milk meat, hair and fibre etc. Some bacteria and protozoa have isolated from rumen by the researchers and with their fermented products and pathways. Name of the fermented products with the products is presented in the following Table 24.

Introduction

While world population is expected to increase from 6 billion to about 8.3 billion, India is likely to be the most populous nation with 1.6 billion in the year 2030. Therefore, it is essential to be prepared to produce sufficient food for the increased population with the application of newer technologies. The consumption of animal food was 10 kg/yr in the 1960s increasing to 26 kg/yr in 2000 and is expected to be 37 kg/yr by 2030 (FAO, 2008; 2009). Large increases in per capita and total demand for meat, milk and eggs are forecast for most developing countries for the next few decades (Delgado et al., 1999). In developed countries, per capita intakes are forecast to change slightly, but the increases in developing countries, with their larger populations and more rapid population growth rates, will generate a very large increase in global demand.

Moreover, an increasing number of consumers demanding healthy and quality foods have pushed researchers into development of technologies that can control the proportion of lean and fat muscle deposition in meat producing animals. A number of technologies have been developed that led to remarkable improvements in the efficiency of animal production and in carcass composition and meat quality. There are some dietary additives and vitamins that may increase protein and muscle deposition, while often simultaneously reducing fat deposition by modifying nutrient metabolism in individuals.

Maintaining a proper acid-base balance is crucial for the health, productivity, and survival of livestock and poultry. The physiological processes that regulate this balance are sensitive to various factors such as diet, environmental conditions, and metabolic disorders. Any disruption can lead to metabolic problems that negatively impact growth, reproduction, immunity, and overall performance. The acid-base balance in animals refers to the maintenance of the blood’s pH within a narrow range, typically 7.35–7.45. It is regulated by three main systems:
Buffer systems
The bicarbonate buffer system is the most significant, comprising bicarbonate ions (HCO3 –) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). It resists rapid pH changes by neutralizing excess acids or bases.
Respiratory regulation
Animals adjust blood pH by modulating the rate and depth of respiration, which affects carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. Increased CO2 leads to acidosis, while decreased CO2 causes alkalosis.
Renal regulation
The kidneys excrete hydrogen ions (H+) and reabsorb bicarbonate, playing a long-term role in maintaining acid-base homeostasis.
Disruptions in these systems can lead to two primary conditions: Acidosis: A state where the blood becomes too acidic (pH < 7.35).
Alkalosis: A condition where the blood becomes too basic (pH > 7.45).
Common metabolic problems.

According to “Artha-sastra”, first book on Governance, Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade, world?s first meteorological Instrument, a “Rain Gauge”, apparently a circular vessel with 20 fingers equivalent width and 8 fingers equivalent depth were installed by Kautilya (Chanakya) during 350-281BC throughout the Mauryan empire (Rainfall measurement:: 1 adhaka = 12mm, I drona = 40 to 50 mm). He is the first person to identify country?s economy depends on Rainfall. Good yield of rain-fed crop requires rainfall of 16 dronas was essential and 4 dronas rainfall is sufficient, also identified rainy season July to December wherein 2/3 annual rainfall receives during Mid-August to October end, now as per IMD norms Southwest monsoon season. He also identified his empire consists of FOUR CLIMATIC zones Tundra/Tropical Rain forest/Semiarid and Arid zones. With the modern seafarers, Columbus (1451-1506) Americus Vespucius (1454-1512) Italian Explorers, James Cook (1728-1779), British Explorer, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1529), Vasco-de-gama (14601524) Portuguese Explorer and other Navigators of 15th to 18th Century faced severe cyclonic storm and rough weather over high sea felt the need of Meteorological and Navigational equipments. Inventions of modern day instruments started. For Navigators, Quadrant, Mariners Campus (dry), Sand glasses for time measurement (800-900AD) and accurate mechanical Watch (1759) were invented. From the term “NAVAGATHI”, modern term of “NAVIGATION” born. With the introduction of Hot air balloon flight in 18th Century, Air flights (after 1903) our knowledge of weather of upper levels of the atmosphere – knowledge of heights of standard pressure altitudes, Upper Air Temperature, Humidity, Wind direction and speed upto Troposphere. Radio-sonde ascents were commenced in 1936. Radars and Satellite images further increased knowledge about weather and assisting for the preparation of weather inferences useful for Seafarers, flight operators and General Public, Agriculturists, Live-stock managements, national level planners, trade and economists.

Introduction

There is growing worldwide interest in reducing methane emissions from domestic ruminants. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas and its release into the atmosphere is directly linked with animal agriculture, particularly ruminant production. Methane emitted from ruminant livestock is regarded as a loss of feed energy and also a contributor to global warming. Methane is synthesized in the rumen as one of the hydrogen sink products that are unavoidable for efficient succession of anaerobic microbial fermentation. Various attempts have been made to reduce methane emission, mainly through rumen microbial manipulation, by the use of agents including chemicals, antibiotics and natural products such as oils, fatty acids and plant extracts. A newer approach is the development of vaccines against methanogenic bacteria. While ionophore antibiotics have been widely used due to their efficacy and affordable prices, the use of alternative natural materials is becoming more attractive due to health concerns regarding antibiotics. An important feature of a natural material that constitutes a possible alternative methane inhibitor is that the material does not reduce feed intake or digestibility but does enhance propionate that is the major hydrogen sink alternative to methane. Since methane contains energy, its emission during rumen fermentation is considered to be a loss of feed energy that is equivalent to 2-12% of the gross energy of animal feed (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). Some implications of these approaches, as well as an introduction to antibiotic-alternative natural materials and novel approaches, are provided.

Poor quality roughages includes the wheat straw, commonly fed to ruminants but unable to provide any DCP. Urea ammoniation method, not only improves the nutritive value of straw in terms of DCP and TDN, but it also improves the dry matter intake of animal by improving its palatability. In this method of urea ammoniation, one quintal of wheat straw is treated with 4 kg fertilizer grade urea (4%) by dissolving in 40 litre of water (moisture 40%). The dissolved urea is sprayed over several layers of wheat straw and mixed properly and then kept under airtight condition by covering it with polythene sheet for a period of 4 weeks. With the presence of enzyme urease the urea get broken down in to ammonia and carbon di oxide. This ammonia on one hand improves the nitrogen content of the straw and on another hand alkalinity (by ammonia and by ammonium hydroxide) reacts on the lingo-cellulosic bonds to loosen their strength. So by increasing the nitrogen content of the straw it increase the nutritive value of the straw in terms of increasing the DCP value of the straw and on another hand by reducing the bonds of lingo-cellulose it increase the digestibility of crude fiber and hence it also increase the energy (TDN) content of the straw.

The amount of feed or nutrient intake by an animal which is not excreted in the faeces is considered to be digested by the animals. The depiction of digested feed/nutrient as percentage of intake is known as digestibility coefficient. However, this does not represent the true value of digestibility of a feed or nutrient because during the period of recording some part of digested material is returned to the digestive tract after absorption in the body and excreted in the faeces. In addition to this some secretions of the digestive system and debris of epithelial cells are also eliminated in the faeces. These errors are quite large and highly variable for the nitrogenous constituents and minerals in the feeds. Due to these factors the determined digestibility coefficient is known as apparent digestibility coefficient. For the determination of digestion coefficient, only daily intake of feed or nutrients and faecal void values are recorded.

The availability of nitrogenous nutrients and minerals is more accurately determined by their retention (balance) in the body. Therefore, for the determination of the retention of nitrogen and minerals,metabolism trials are conducted. The routes of elimination of these constituents from the body are faeces, urine, expired air, skin secretions and milk (in case of lactating mammalian species). In a conventional balance study the loss of nutrient (s) through skin, being quantitatively little, is ignored. However, in case of some very specific study, collection of skin secretions and materials like shed hair and scurf are collected. For the collection of skin secretion (sweat) a special absorbant suit is used. In all routine balance studies, on male animals quantity of intake and void in faeces and urine are only taken into account.

I. Detection of Castor Husk in Oil Cakes and Oil Seed Meals (Method of ISI, (BIS), IS: 10165-1982)
Principle

The method is based on the fact that castor husk is not bleached under the conditions which cause the bleaching of almost all other materials of vegetable origin likely to be present in an oilcake. The method consists of the treatment of the material with dilute alkali and acid solutions followed by treatment with bleaching powder solution and the isolation of the unbleached castor husk.

Straw represents a category of low-density feed characterized by a high concentration of structural carbohydrates, specifically cellulose and hemicellulose, while exhibiting low levels of carbohydrates, nitrogen and minerals, along with variable lignin content. Lignin serves as a physical barrier, inhibiting the microbial degradation of these materials. Straw is having low digestibility due to following reasons:
• Reduced voluntary intake due to unappealing taste.
• Low digestibility and nutritional value.
• Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in crude proteins, essential minerals, and vitamins.
• The presence of anti-nutritional components such as lignin, silica, tannins, and oxalates.
The primary aim of treating low-quality roughage includes:
• Enhancing voluntary intake by improving palatability.
• Increasing digestibility to boost the intake of digestible energy.
• Minimizing losses during digestive processes.
• Breaking down cellulose and hemicellulose from lignin and silica to enhance digestibility.
• Expanding the surface area available for microbial action and enzyme activity, thereby improving digestibility.
• Reducing bulkiness through densification.
The processing of low-quality roughages can be achieved through various methods.

Dry Methods
1. Decortication and dehulling: The process of decortication for groundnuts and cottonseeds enhances the nutritional profile of the resulting cakes by eliminating the outer layers, which are notably high in crude fiber. Similarly, dehulling or dehusking of pulses and grains also contributes to an improved nutritional value.
2. Cracking and dry rolling: This technique involves the fragmentation of the kernel into smaller particles through the application of pressure using dry rollers. This method increases the surface area of the grains, thereby enhancing their digestibility.
3. Crimping: In this method, the traditional rolling of grains is substituted with the use of corrugated rollers, a process referred to as crimping.
4. Crumbles: The term “crumble” refers to the process of grinding pellets into a granular form, which is particularly beneficial for chick feed.
5. Popping or puffing: This technique involves the dry heating of grains, which must contain a moisture content of 10-14%. The final moisture content in the popped grains is approximately 3%. During this process, grains are subjected to temperatures ranging from 370 to 425 degrees Celsius for 15 to 20 seconds, leading to the rupture of the endosperm due to the rapid expansion of steam. This results in an increase in grain size and enhances both palatability and digestibility.
6. Micronizing: This process employs infrared heat energy on grains, resulting in the breakdown of glucosidic bonds between starch molecules.
7. Roasting: In roasting, grains are exposed to direct flames at a temperature of 148.9 degrees celsius. This method not only expands the grains but also inactivates protease inhibitors in whole soybeans, thereby improving their nutritional quality.

Metritis is a condition seen in cattle in which there is the inflammation of the entire thickness of uterine wall (endometrium, myometrium and serosa). When it occurs just after parturition, it is called puerperal metritis. It usually occurs after abnormal birth like in case of dystocia, abortion, RFM etc. The animal shows systemic signs like increase in temperature initially, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc. There is expulsion of large volume of foul smelling reddish to brown discharge from vagina frequently associated with straining. The expelled discharge from vagina is often with pieces of degenerating placenta.