eChapters

This chapter introduces the microbiological characteristics of eggs and egg products, beginning with the egg's natural physical and chemical defenses against microorganisms. It examines routes of contamination, spoilage microorganisms and spoilage patterns, with particular emphasis on Salmonella Enteritidis and its public-health significance. Other pathogens of concern and the distinctive microbiology of processed egg products are also considered. The chapter discusses microbiological testing, indicator organisms, contamination control and predictive microbiology, providing a foundation for designing effective safety systems throughout the egg value chain.

Domestication of animals was followed by the provision of shelters for protection which also modified the climate to suit the species housed for improving the productivity and reproductive efficiency. Climate is the long term average condition of the meteorological variables in a given region. The climate is divided into macro climate and micro climate. Macro climate is the general large scale climatic conditions of the open atmosphere in a large area. Micro-climate is the climatic conditions directly surrounding the animal or the physical environment in the immediate vicinity of the animal. The environment includes all the combination of conditions under which the animal lives. The immediate variables that affect the production and reproduction of animals are its micro climatic variables. The animals have requirements of their own. The environment influences where and how animal lives. Domestication has resulted in man dictating where and how animal lives. Thus breeds of livestock evolved in temperate regions have been introduced into tropical area with high rainfall, humidity and temperatures. Homeotherms are a group of animals which maintain their deep body temperature essentially constant. All the domestic animals are homeotherms. In the case of an inert body, basic thermodynamic forces establishes an equilibrium in which the body attains the same temperature of the surrounding environment. The same law applies to homeothermic animals also. Therefore, these animals will have to make compensatory physiological and behavioural adjustments to keep a constant deep-body temperature. While digestion of food takes place in the body of animals, a portion of the energy in the feed is converted into heat. This metabolic heat plus the heat gained from the environment through conduction, convection and radiation results in excess heat gain to the animal, which has to be dissipated, if heat balance is to be maintained. For this the animal depends on various physiological and behavioural functions. This balancing act by which a constant normal core temperature is maintained is known as homeothermy. Heat production is regulated by hormonal secretions, changes in muscle tone, shivering and by voluntary muscular activity. Heat loss is controlled by vasodialatation, increasing the cutaneous circulation and evaporative loss. The animal reduces its feed intake as well as production, drink more water. In long term the hair coat becomes lighter with less insulation. The animal will also exhibit postural changes and behavioural adjustments. They will try to increase surface area, reduce physical activity and seek shade.

Introduction

Pastoralism involving rearing of different livestock species makes significant contributions to the economy of developing countries, both in terms of providing employment and income opportunities and in supplying nutrition to rural poor. Pastoralism generally has a mobile aspect, and movement of animal herds in search of fresh pastures and water is a key feature qualifying pastoralism. The term nomadic is used when mobility is high and in irregular patterns; transhumant when there are regular back-and-forth movements between relatively fixed locations; and sedentary for the rest. Pastoralists inhabit zones where the potential for crop cultivation is limited due to steep terrain, extreme temperatures and low and highly variable rainfall. Within this unpredictable, vulnerable and dynamic environment, they have developed successful mechanisms of adaptation to maintain an ecological balance between themselves and the natural environment. Thus, pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land that adapts well to the environment. Transhumance is the seasonal migration of livestock and pastoralists between higher and lower pastures.

Milk impaction in neonatal calves is a condition characterized by the improper digestion or accumulation of milk in the abomasum, leading to digestive disturbances, discomfort, and potential health complications for the calf. This condition is most commonly seen in newborn or very young calves; typically within the first few days to weeks of life, as their digestive systems are still developing and may be more susceptible to dysfunctions. Causes of milk impaction
Several factors can contribute to milk impaction in neonatal calves. Understanding these causes is essential for prevention and treatment. The primary causes are:
1. Overfeeding or undigested milk: One of the most common causes of milk impaction is overfeeding, where the calf is fed more milk than it can digest properly. Overfeeding can overwhelm the capacity of the
abomasum, leading to a backup of undigested milk. Undigested milk in the stomach can ferment, creating an acidic environment that may disrupt normal digestion and lead to impaction.
2. Inappropriate milk temperature: Milk fed to calves should be at the proper temperature, usually between 38-39°C (100-102°F). Milk that is too cold can cause a delay in the digestive process and lead to impaction, as it may not be digested as quickly as milk at the ideal temperature. Similarly, milk that is too hot can cause digestive stress or irritation.

Introduction

There are manypeople all over the world who have a certain level of sensitivity or intolerance towards milk and milk products. The reactions to milk which involve the immune systemare termed as milkallergy, whereas, difficulty in the digestion of the milk and milk products is known as milk intolerance. Milk intolerance occurs due to malabsorption of milk sugar (lactose) in intestine, a condition in which lactose is not digested into its monomers (galactose and glucose) due to lower activity or insufficiency of lactase enzyme. Inability to digest lactose, which is a disaccharide present only in milk, is specifically known as lactose intolerance. However, hypersensitivity involves the adverse immune reaction(allergic reaction) inthe body causeddue to the ingestion of milk proteins. Milk and milk products are major source of basic as well as essential nutrients and cannot be skipped from the diet of the individual. It is a rich source of calcium,which is essential for the growth and reformationof bones. The decline in calcium may lead to thin, fragile bones that break easily, a condition called osteomalacia or osteoporosis in women. Thus, it is a matter of concern for both children andadults whoare allergic or intolerant towards milk and milk products and not getting enough calcium and other nutrients in diet. This chapter would provide more insight about milk intolerance and milk allergy/hypersensitivity and how to deal with it.

The goat milk has several peculiarities, being a food of high digestibility and high nutritional value.Goats can hardly compete with cattle or buffalo in milk production ability. Goats produce approximately 2% of the world’s total annual milk supply. Neverthless, goat is an important source of animal protein for the landless and marginal farmers of tropical countreis, in areas where other classes of livestook cannot possibly survive and for several classes of people allergic to cow milk. Goats contribute about 4 % of the total milk produced in India. Goats and sheep producing milk for people start with the beginnings of domestication. For thousands of years they have provided sustainance for the people. During the last 150 years genetic selection and better feeding conditions led to several superior goat and sheep breeds in some countries in terms of milk and solids productivity, proving a great potential for evolution in both species, and responding to an increasing market demand and popularity. Some sheep breeds can produce more than 1000 kg milk in one lactation and several goat breeds more than 2000 kg milk, but in physiologically comparable terms of 4% fat-corrected milk both species can be equal. Goat milk production leaders have been capable of producing 10 kg milk per day of lactation.

Goat has been referred to as the Poor mans cow or wet nurse in Europe. Goat provides the cheapest source of milk to the poor both in rural and urban areas. The milk of goats is sweet, nourishing and medicinal. Goat milk is white in colour. Goat milk is whiter than whole cow milk. Butter and cheese made from goat milk are also white, but may be colored during processing. Exploitation of goats as a source of milk for human beings dates back from antiquity. Goat milk has been acknowledged as an ideal food for the aged, the sick and convalescent as well as for infants and growing children. Ever since Cleopatra filled her bathtub with goat milk , fresh goat’s milk has been revered for its superior moisturizing properties.

The livestock sector, particularly the dairy sector, plays a vital role in India’s economy and contributes significantly to the country’s milk production. The continuous growth and development of this sector have led to India becoming the world’s largest milk producer. It has seen significant growth, with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 13.36% from 2014-15 to 2021-22. This sector’s contribution to the total Gross Value Added GVa in agriculture and allied sectors has risen from 24.38% in 2014-15 to 30.19% in 2021-22, accounting for 5.73% of the total GVA in 2021-22. The country’s livestock population, as per the 20th Livestock Census, includes approximately 303.76 million bovines (cattle, buffalo, mithun, and yak), 74.26 million sheep, 148.88 million goats, 9.06 million pigs, and about 851.81 million poultry. The dairy sector stands as the single largest agricultural commodity, contributing 5% to the national economy and directly employing more than 8 crore farmers.

12.1. Introduction

Milking is the crucial operation in a dairy farm, as milk is the main source of revenue of a dairy farm. Milking is a labour intensive operation. About 50-60 percent of the total time of farm operation is required for milking and allied activities. Milking is an art which requires skill, patience, efficiency and experience. It should be handled quietly, quickly, gently, cleanly and completely, by avoiding any type of pain, annoyance or inconvenience to the animals. Possession of high yielding animals or good managemental conditions will not generate profit if the milking operation is inefficient.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why deficiency of potassium in livestock is very rare?

Ans: The potassium uptake by plants is about 10 times more than sodium. So, deficiency of potassiumin livestock is veryrare.

2.    HowZn helpsin vitamin Autilization?

Ans: Zn is a component of alcohol dehydrogenase which has a significant role in converting retinol to retinaldehyde or vice versa foreye vision, reproductionandutilization of Vitamin A

3.    What is parakeratosis?

Ans: This is a Zn deficiency disease in pig characterized by hyper keratinisation, thickening and reddening of skin followed by eruption and scab formation giving an appearance of mange.

4.    Why ruminant have additional requirement of vitamin B12? Ans: Theruminants have an additional requirementfor thevitamin B₁₂ because of itsinvolvementin themetabolismof propionic acid.

5.    Why perosis is also called as slipped tendon?

There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Water is not a nutrient but play important role in livestock industry. These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, and proteins. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The term minerals is used by nutritionists to refer to inorganic chemical elements, but is used by many other scientists to mean a homogeneous crystalline compounds. Mineral elements are not inert materials. Mineral elements may change valence states and are transferred from one chemical compound to another. Minerals are active participants in enzymatic reactions, have specificity of function, and are critical to life.

Determination of True Protein

Apparatus

Wide mouth stoppered bottle, water bath plus those used for total nitrogen (crude protein) determination.

Reagents

1. Saturated solution of potash alum.
2. Stutzer reagent-Dissolve 40g of CuSO₄ in 2 litres of water in a wide mouth stoppered bottle. Add 10ml of glycerine and sufficient quantity of 30 % NaOH to make the solution alkaline (Litmus paper). Shake the contents and allow to settle. Discard the supernatant liquid. Collect the precipitate on a filter paper and transfer it to glass mortar with the help of spatula. Add 3ml of glycerine and a little water in the mortar and triturate the precipitate with a glass pastle. Transfer the triturated material to a wide mouth stoppered bottle, add 600ml of water, shake well and filter. Repeat the process till the precipitate (filtrate) is free from alkali and sulphate. Collect the precipitate and add 30ml glycerine. Dilute the emulsion to 320ml with water and preserve in a container.

Mixed farming exists in many forms depending on external and internal factors. External factors are weather patterns, market prices, technological developments, etc. Internal factors relate to local soil characteristics, composition of the family and farmers’ ingenuity. Farmers can decide to opt for mixed enterprises when they want to save resources by interchanging them on the farm - because these permit wider crop rotations and thus reduce dependence on chemicals, because they consider mixed systems closer to nature, or because they allow diversification for better risk management. There is wide variation in mixed systems. Even pastoralists practice a form of mixed farming since their livelihood depends on the management of different feed resources and animal species. Mixed farms are systems that consist of different parts, which together should act as a whole. They thus need to be studied in their entirety and not as separate parts in order to understand the system and the factors that drive farmers and influence their decisions. It may be the most important principle to achieve increased production in mixed systems, together with the awareness that crops and animals have multiple functions.

The UNFCCC (United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change) has defined climate change as “a change in climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of global atmosphere which is in addition to natural climate variability” (UNFCCC, 2008). Ruminant animals, such as cattle, sheep, buffalo, and goats, are unique due to their special digestive systems which can convert otherwise unusable plant materials into nutritious food and fiber. This same helpful digestive system, however, produces methane (CH₄), a potent green house gas (GHG) that can contribute to global climate change. Livestock production systems can also emit other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). The most important GHG?s are CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O, which have increased in the last 150 years and have different global warming potential. According to Sejian et al., (2011) and Solomon et al., (2007), the warming potential of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O are 1, 25, and 310, respectively. Taking into account the entire livestock commodity chain – from land use and feed production, to livestock farming and waste management, to product processing and transportation –Livestock?s Long Shadow attributes about 18 percent of total anthropogenic GHG emissions to the livestock sector (FAO, 2006). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), convened by the United Nations, has reported evidence that human activities over the past 50 years have influenced Global Climate through the production of GHG, which results in increased absorption in the atmosphere of infrared radiations emitted from the earth?s surface. The accumulation of GHG results in increased global temperature which in turn can increase annual precipitation in high rainfall regions and decrease precipitation in regions of low rainfall (Gerstengarbe and Werner, 2008). This will affect water supplies, distribution of deserts and wet areas, the range and number of pests that affect plants or diseases and biodiversity.

Introduction

The modern biotechnologies (animal cloning, stem cells, and transgenesis) have contributed immensely to increasing livestock productivity, particularly in developed countries, and could help to alleviate poverty and hunger, reduce the threats of diseases and ensure environmental sustainability in developing countries. A wide range of biotechnologies are available and have already been used in developing countries in the animal science disciplines, i.e., animal reproduction, genetics and breeding; animal nutrition and production; and animal health. In animal reproduction, genetics and breeding, artificial insemination (AI) has perhaps been the most widely applied animal biotechnology, particularly in combination with cryopreservation, allowing significant genetic improvement for productivity as well as the global dissemination of selected male germplasm. Complementary technologies such as monitoring reproductive hormones, oestrus synchronization and semen sexing can improve the efficiency of AI. Embryo transfer provides the same opportunities for females, albeit on a much smaller scale and at a much greater price. Biotechnologies in animal health are used to increase the precision of disease diagnosis as well as for disease control and treatment. The Biotechnology Industry Organization claims that the genetic engineering of animals in agriculture offers ''tremendous benefit to the animal by enhancing health, well-being and animal welfare'' (Gottlieb and Wheeler 2008). Further, improvements are still needed in product composition and production efficiency, especially in growth, disease resistance, and reproduction. In this regard, transgenic animals stem cells, cloning and other emerging biotechnologies will have important roles in producing more and higher quality animal food.

Introduction

Over decades, improvement of domestic animal species has been done by selecting superior animals, mainly based on individual performance and their subsequent breeding to get progenies with higher production potential. Within the 20th century, understanding of inheritance of economic traits, factors influencing genetic potential and their interactions provided better criteria for selection and this has resulted into faster genetic gains. Several selection criteria which were composite ones based on the individuals as well as its relative performances were being used.

Introduction

Genetic programs in livestock have been extensively used to improve their productivity over the last 50 years. The traditional approach of breeding, based on quantitative genetics principle, has been very successful (Schaeffer, 2006), without knowledge of genes increasing or decreasing in herds. Effective progeny testing program and use of genetically proven bulls have made drastic genetic improvement in livestock populations. Further advances in computation for genetic merit have further added to improvement process. Livestock producers presently are focusing on overall development of livestock with improved health, production, reproduction and longevity and therefore, the traits are becoming the part of selection program (Decker et al., 2009). Advancement in molecular biology along with high-throughput genotyping has led to discovery of a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in livestock (Van Tassell et al., 2008). SNP arrays covering the entire genome may explain most of the genetic variation in important traits of livestock (Meuwissen et al., 2001). These SNPs may act as molecular markers and be used as a substitute for phenotypic selection. This process, in a broad sense is known as molecular or marker-assisted breeding and describes selection strategies including marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genome wide selection (GWS) or genomic selection (GS).

Introduction

Commercially laying of poultry birds carried out for a laying year or cycle after that as egg production decreases then they are usually culled when birds starts shedding of feathers. If we still keep these birds after allowing shedding and renewing of feathers birds take sufficient rest to builds up its body reserve of nutrients for next laying cycles. Their production regains 80-83% of the first laying cycle therefore recycling of laying can be carried out by shedding and renewing of feathers which is nothing but the “molting.”

Introduction
From the tiniest insects to the largest blue whales, all species in the animal kingdom have been shown to undergo the migration. Millions of animals embark on epic journeys every year in search of food, shelter, and opportunity for mating. These animals routinely travel thousands of kilometres by land, sea, or air, which both tests and improves their endurance. Among the most striking animal migrations are those of Arctic terns. The long-distance migration of these little birds from pole to pole is well-known. They are thought to move over 40,000 kilometres (25,000 miles) a year, spending the majority of their time at sea chasing an endless summer. One of the most well-known migrations is that of the monarch butterfly, which travels across several generations. Though they are widespread throughout the United States and beyond, monarch butterflies are most known for their ability to travel 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) from Canada to Mexico. Millions of monarch butterflies fly south each year from their northern ranges to the oyamel fir forests near the Sierra Madre mountains, where they build massive roosts to remain warm throughout the winter. The monarchs begin their annual migration northwards in the spring, taking three to five generations to reach their goal. The migration that is the most dramatic belongs to the wildebeest. They coexist with thousands of zebras and gazelles in enormous herds that number over a million. The yearly migration of wildebeest across Tanzania and Kenya in quest of new water and grazing land is well-known. One of the most magnificent displays of nature is thought to be the migration. Animals that migrate are essential to preserving ecosystem balance and sustaining life as we know it. They distribute seeds and serve as pollinators, which support the structure and functionality of ecosystems.

Sciarid(mushroom flies): Bradysia paupera, Lycoriella auripila: Sciaridae

The larvae feed on the mycelial attachments and restrict the growth of the spawn. The maggots also feed on the developing mushrooms or pinheads and thus cause loss in yield. They also bore the developing mushrooms and render them hollow.

Introduction

Avian mycoplasmosis is caused by several pathogenic mycoplasma of which mycoplasmosis due to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) and Mycoplasma meleagridis are important. The mycoplasma are group of bacteria that lack cell wall due to which the shape of bacteria is pleomorphic. Due to lack of cell wal, mycoplasma are resistant to those drug which act on cell wall and includes Penicillin and its derivatives. Mycoplasma primarily affects respiratory system and joints in birds and respiratory and urogenital system in humans. The avian mycoplasma are mainly transmitted by vertical route (egg transmission), but can also transmitted by horizontal route. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) causes chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chicken, turkeys and game birds. Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) causes infectious synovitis in chicken and turkeys whereas Mycoplasma meleagridis cause disease in turkey. The Mg and Ms belongs to class of Mollicutes (Molecutis: soft tissue), order Mycoplasmatales and family Mycoplasmataceae. The CRD caused by Mg affects respiratory system and air sac in presence of other respiratory pathogen/ stress or immunosuppression. Clinically, CRD affected birds show respiratory rales, gasping, nasal discharge, and rhinitis with mortality due to complication with other respiratory viral pathogens or E. coli infection. The Ms has affinity for tendon and ligaments of joint causing severe lameness due to tenosynovitis with mild lesions in respiratory system and air sac. The Ms affected birds show lameness, breast blister and increased culling of male breeder birds. The Mg and Ms causes significant losses in poultry industry due to decreased egg production, condemnation and downgrading of carcass and decreased hatchability. Mycoplasma meleagridis in turkey associated with air sacculitis and drop in egg production.