eChapters

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..

A novel approach to immunisation is edible vaccines that work by using plants as bio factories to create immunogenic proteins that, when ingested, can provide immunity. The idea is to genetically modify plants such that they express genes that code for pathogen proteins or antigens. Then, because they stimulate the synthesis of vaccine components within their tissues, these genetically engineered plants serve as vaccine delivery vehicles. The hepatitis B vaccination served as the model for immunogenicity in humans in the early research on edible vaccines.

Plum weevil : Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Myllocerus laetivirens, M. sabulosus, M. undecimpustulatus : Curculionidae

Adult beetles feed on the epidermis of fresh and tender leaves leaving behind only the network of veins and affected leaves dry up and fall. They cause serious damage in young plantations.

Defoliating beetles
 
Adoretus duvauceli, A. versutus, Anomala dimidiata, A. flavipes, A. lineatopennis, A. rufiventris, Holotrichia longipennis, Hilyotrogus holosericeous, Lachnosterna coriacea, L. crinicollis, L. longipennis, Mimela passerine, M. pectoralis.

PEG Estimation
Introduction
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is used as a marker for the estimation of rumen water volume and ruminant digestion studies (Hyden and Ekman, 1953). Long back, Hyden (1955) developed a turbidimetric method which is described below :

Principle
When trichloroacetic acid is added to a solution of PEG, a turbidity is produced, which can be measured photo-electrically. The intensity of the cloud, which consists of finely divided oily droplets, is increased in the presence of barium ions. Protein and sulphate must be completely removed from the sample before the addition of the trichloroacetic acid reagent. Sulphate is precipitated with barium chloride and the proteins are removed essentially according to Samogyi (1945). The method has been developed for determination of PEG in ruminal and abomasal fluids, but it has been tried with other biological materials too.

Fruit borer (Anar butterfly): Deudorix(Virachola) isocrates; D. epijarbas: :Lycaenidae

This is a pest distributed all over India and adjoining countries .It has a host range covering apple, gooseberry ber, citrus, guava, litchi, loquat, peach, mulberry, pear, sapota and  tamarind. Adult is a beautiful glossy bluish to brownish violet butterfly with an orange patch on forewings and a tail in the hind wing.

India produced 121.8 MT milk during the year 2011-12 and continued to rank first in world milk production. India contributed 16 % of world milk production. As per 2010 statistic, India with 12.5 % of world cattle population contributed 8.4 % in world cow milk and  with 56.7 % of world buffalo population contributed  67.45 % in world buffalo milk. In total milk production of India, contribution of crossbreds, indigenous cattle and buffalo were 23 %, 20% and 53%, respectively.

Aphids: Myzus persicae, Lipaphis erysimi and Brevicoryne brassicae Aphididae
 
Aphids suck the sap from potato foliage, causing wrinkling, cupping and downward curling of young leaves. The older leaves will become yellow, wilt and fall off.  They also excrete honeydew on which sooty mould develops covering affected parts with a thin superficial black coating that hinders photosynthetic activity of leaves resulting in stunted growth of plants. In addition, they also act as vectors, for transmitting potato leaf roll virus. Major damage by M.persicae and A. gossypii is through transmission of potato leaf roll virus.

Mixed and Integrated Poultry Farming

Mixed farming refers to the practice of cultivating crops and rearing livestock on the same farm, aimed at maximizing economic benefits through the efficient use of resources. This type of farming can be practiced either simultaneously or at different times, depending on the needs and conditions. In India, mixed farming is particularly significant as it typically contributes at least 10% of a farmer’s income from livestock, potentially reaching up to 49%.

Advantages of Mixed Farming

• Maximized Returns: By-products of farm activities, such as crop residues, can be effectively utilized to feed livestock, leading to higher returns.

• Year-Round Employment: Mixed farming provides continuous work opportunities throughout the year, ensuring a steady income.

• Efficient Resource Utilization: The combination of crops and livestock ensures optimal use of land, labor, and capital.

• Soil Fertility: Livestock manure contributes to maintaining and enhancing soil fertility, which is crucial for sustained crop production.

• Balanced Food Production: Mixed farming allows for the production of a variety of food items, leading to a more balanced diet throughout the year.

For maximization of productivity in any kind of poultry venture the knowledge on the behaviour of birds and its application play very significant role. Behaviour is the reaction of the whole organism to certain stimuli, or the manner in which it interacts to its environment. Behavioural patterns are not inherited as such, but develop through the process of growth and get differentiated under the influence of genetic and environmental factors. Primary function of behaviour is to enable the bird to adjust itself to some changes in condition, whether external or internal. Most animals have a behavioural pattern which can be tried out in a given situation and in this way they learn to apply one or the other according to that which produces the best adjustment.

Genetic Classification of Poultry

Understanding the genetic classification of poultry is essential for breeders and farmers to optimize the performance and standards of different commercial breeds. Here’s a detailed overview:

Evolutionary Background

• In the process of evolution, cold-blooded (poikilothermic) reptiles are considered the ancestors of birds.

• Birds are warm-blooded (homeothermic) feathered creatures adapted for hot and dry climates in their terrestrial habitats.

Chromosomal Categories

• Sex Chromosomes: Carry genetic material that determines the sex of an offspring.

• Autosomes: Non-sex chromosomes that carry the bulk of genetic information.

Introduction

A hatchery is such a facility where eggs are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of poultry eggs. Poultry hatchery produce a majority of bird’s chicks by hatching their eggs including chicken, turkey, ducks, quails, goose and some minor bird species. A broiler breeder produces about 150-180 fertile eggs in a year of reproductive life. This reproductive capacity can’t be utilized without liberating the breeding hen from incubating eggs. In India, there is huge demand of day old chicks for commercial poultry farming and for that there is great scope for hatchery business. The competition in the hatchery industry is increasing day by day for efficient production of quality chicks economically. Therefore, it may be necessary for the hatchery man have thorough understanding of the basic and practical aspects of incubation and hatchery operation for efficient working.

Housing of Poultry

Proper housing is essential for successful poultry farming, as it directly impacts the health, welfare, and productivity of the birds. Well-designed poultry housing not only provides protection and comfort but also ensures efficient management and optimal environmental conditions for the flock. This chapter explores the key aspects of poultry housing, including its purpose, site selection, and layout considerations.

Purpose of Poultry Housing

• Protection and Comfort: Provides a safe environment that shields birds from predators, harsh weather, and other external threats.

• Health and Welfare: Ensures optimal health and well-being by preventing diseases and reducing stress.

• Management: Facilitates easy and efficient management of the flock in a controlled and scientific manner.

• Cost Efficiency: Reduces overall production costs through efficient resource management.

Housing constitutes the second largest component of cost of poultry production. An ideally located and well planned poultry farm is an essential requirement for efficient egg and meat production. Poultry housing normally serves the following major functions:

Provides shelter and protection to the birds

Provides comfort to the birds.

Helps in organization of large flock into a manageable unit.

In India, poultry judging refers to selection of birds on the basis of their physical appearances, breed characteristics and production performances; however, in other countries, like USA judging is also used for eggs, carcasses and further processed products. The Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India annually conducts livestock and poultry shows in various parts of the country in collaboration of state governments. Besides, state Agricultural/ Veterinary Universities or other institutions also conduct such shows. In these shows judging contests are carried out mostly for the undergraduate students by using a score card to grade birds either for production characters or breed characters. The winners are awarded trophies and cash prizes. The birds meant for judging are kept in individual cages and the participants are requested to score under various sub-headings and to finally rank the bird. Any deviation from “ideal” or “perfection” (as described by the American Standard of Perfection or the British Poultry Standards) but not serious enough to constitute a disqualifications in the show room is considered to be a defect. Serious defects are regarded as disqualifications and will bar a bird from winning any prize. Both layers and broilers can be physically evaluated for their performance rating.

Management of the poultry house environment forms an essential aspect towards maximizing production performance. Generally, proper maintenance of poultry litter is seldom given emphasis. The condition of litter significantly influences bird’s performance and ultimately affects the economy for rearing. The litter is defined as the bedding materials of around 5-6 cm height consisting of locally available materials like rice husk, peanut hull, wood shavings, paper shreds, sawdust or groundnut hulls. These materials can be used alone or in combination to rear the birds on floor under deep litter system of management. The excreta, feathers, spilled feed and water are mixed with bedding material, get further decomposed due to heat and bacterial action resulting in built-up-litter towards the end of rearing.

The review provides an explanation of the Indian poultry market’s trend in management. Everything you need to know about diseases, their attacks, processing, production, feeding, and market trends is included in this review. For farmers, raising poultry is a vital source of revenue that allows them to meet their basic necessities. Because of the high consumption rate and current population growth, there is a sharp increase in demand for chicken meat. Meat consumption is required to provide additional nutritious intake. Generally speaking, the poultry sector plays a critical role in creating micro and macrobusiness opportunities and enhancing human nutrition. The Indian economy is dominated by small-scale commercial ventures for women and the delivery of manure for agricultural purposes. Animal health is ensured by the supply of high-quality feed, which maintains nutritional values. The weight and age of the chickens, their rate of development, the quantity of eggs they produce, the climate (cold or rainy weather increases energy consumption), and the amount of nutrition they acquire from foraging all affect how much feed and how much nutrition it contains. This review article includes general information about poultry

Poultry sector has been divided into two broad classes based on the management practices. First one is commercial poultry farming which is the well-organized sector. Second one is backyard poultry farming which plays supportive role for rural economy. The commercial farming practices can divide into two subclasses: layer and broiler industry. Commercial poultry farming provides primary source of income to the farmers and widely influenced by market driven forces. Backyard poultry farming comprises dual purpose birds as both layer and broiler. It supports the rural household with nutritional security, subsidiary income generation and provides the employment to women which
Egg production by backyard and commercial poultry farm
Out of total egg production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs, commercial poultry farming is producing 84.91 billion number eggs whereas, backyard poultry farming is producing 18.41 billion numbers contributing 82.2 percent and 17.8 percent of total production of egg respectively (BAHS, 2019). 

Poultry is one of the fastest-growing industries within agriculture and allied sectors worldwide. This rapid expansion results in the generation of substantial amounts of waste, including poultry manure, dead birds, hatchery wastes, and abattoir wastes. Proper treatment and scientific disposal of these wastes are crucial to avoid significant threats to both avian health and human safety. Unmanaged poultry wastes can lead to the spread of diseases among birds, resulting in considerable economic losses due to mortality and decreased productivity. Additionally, improper waste disposal can contribute to soil and groundwater pollution. Globally, an estimated 400 million chickens are processed weekly, generating a vast amount of waste. For instance, a broiler produces about 0.09 kg of manure daily, while a laying hen produces around 0.18 kg. Effective management of poultry waste requires a comprehensive understanding of its composition and the various physical, chemical, and microbiological processes that influence the fate of potential pollutants, particularly when the waste is applied to land.

This chapter introduces practical laboratory exercises for objective evaluation of wool. It provides procedures for measuring fibre diameter and variation, crimp, staple length, moisture regain, clean wool yield and medullation, along with basic grading exercises. Emphasis is placed on representative sampling, accurate measurement, appropriate units, conditioning and careful recording of raw data. The practical work connects the scientific principles of earlier chapters with hands-on wool evaluation and helps students interpret measurements for grading and end-use recommendations.

As per 20th Livestock Census (2019), Punjab has 1.3% share of India’s total livestock. The share of buffaloes was largest (57.4%) in total livestock population, followed by cross-breed cattle and indigenous cattle. The state of Punjab has about 70.60 lakh livestock in total, comprising of 25.41 lakh cattle, 40.16 lakh buffaloes, 3.48 lakh goats, 0.85 lakh sheep, 0.53 lakh pigs, 0.15 lakh horses and ponies, 1644 mules, 471 donkeys and 170 camels. The share of crossbred cattle increased to 29.3% in 2019 compared to 25.4% in 2012 which signifies that the farmers in the state are resorting to high yielding animals for increasing the milk production. These efforts have led to the highest per capita availability of milk in Punjab which stands at 1271 grams per day compared to national average of 444 grams per day (2021-22), although the share of Punjab in country’s milk production is 6.37%. Punjab is sixth largest producer of milk in India, with production of 14.76 million tonnes (t)/year.

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, economies, and societies. This has led to the higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, sea level rise and growing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as drought, floods, extreme heat and cyclones resulting in disruption of food supply chains. The most critical domains that impact environmental sustainability includes energy, transport, food, waste and water , although there are disparities in the consumption patten of high-income and low income countries. Apart from the food domain (33% of total GHG emissions), meat from ruminants and dairy products constitute the major proportion of carbon footprint. Although only 18% of calories are obtained from meat and dairy products, but they together account for 60% of agriculture’s greenhouse gas emissions and occupy 83% of the world’s arable land. With 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the livestock sector has been identified as one of the primary causes of climate change and the dairysector accounts for around 3.0- 5.1% of the total GHG emissions globally.