eChapters

Complete feed system is a system of ruminants feeding in which roughage and concentrate mixture are mixed homogenously in a predetermined ratio and processed in to pellet, briquette or block form to provide the animals a nutritionally balanced diet. Complete feed system is advantageous over conventional feed system as it reduces the cost of labour, transportation and storage of feed, besides ensuring uniform supply of nutrients and maintaining the optimum rumen environment due to the constant dietary roughage: concentrate ratio, which also avoids the selective feeding.

Feeding wild animals in captivity presents a fearful challenge. There arehundreds of species to consider, each representing millions of years of evolutionary adaptation to particular ecological system.

Natural foods range from Ants to Antelopes. (Antelope = African (deer like) ruminant, forexample-gazelles, gnus, kudus and impala) and Mouth structures varyfromEdentate (toothless)toCarnassial(specialized pre-molars and molars).

Stomach : These may be

a) Single

b) Quadruple.

Intestines: These may be

a) Tube likeor

b) Equipped with a caecal fermentation vat (vat = large vessel).

On the surface, the problem appears unsolvable, … it certainly is not easy. But the need persists to nourish all captive species as appropriately as possible … it is not feasible to wait until a DATABASE is developed comparable with that which exists for domestic animals.Actually domestic animal data can be very useful for the estimation of nutrient needs of wild counterparts.

The prospects of Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR) are exceedingly uncertain. The FAnGR characterize the genetic makeup of the thousands of local breeds worldwide which are well-adapted for producing in harsh environments, and which for millennia have been essential in nourishing human communities. Currently, the genetic diversity in numerous livestock breeds across the world is threatened. Decades of consistent selection intended mainly for production increase has caused irreversible loss of genetic diversity (FAO, 2009).

Probiotics and prebiotics are widely used in animal nutrition to promote gut health, enhance immune function, and improve production performance. Probiotics are live microorganisms (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and Saccharomyces) that confer health benefits when administered in adequate amounts. Prebiotics, such as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS), are non-digestible compounds that stimulate the growth of beneficial gut microbes. The optimal supplementation levels vary among speciesbased on their physiology, diet, and production goals.
Cattle
Probiotics
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Enterococcus faecium,and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are commonly used.
Dose
Lactobacillus spp.: 1 × 109– 1 × 1010 CFU/head/day.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: 5–10 g/head/day or 108– 109 CFU/g feed.
Prebiotics
MOS and FOS are used to improve gut integrity and nutrient absorption.

Introduction

Ruminants are provided with a microbial ecosystem in the gastro-intestinal tract which helps in the bioconversion of lignocellulosic feeds into volatile fatty acids which are utilized by the animal as a source of energy. This microbial biomass is also helpful in synthesis of microbial protein and B-complex vitamins for the host animals. Any disturbance in the microbial balance may affect the performance of the animal adversely and any improvement in the microbial environment may lead to the improvement in productivity of the animal. A number of chemical feed additive like hormone, antibiotics have been used to improve the performance of the animals. But due to residual left over in the animal products and risk of creating disease, resistance against antibiotics, the use of these chemical feed additives have been discouraged and even banned in some countries. As an alternative microbial feed additive seems to be more natural; as it is not creating any new thing in GIT but it is merely restoring the normal and ideal flora in the digestive tract to its full capacity.

Introduction

First feed mill was established in 1875 A.D. in the state of Illinois, U.S.A. for calf meal production.

First feed mill in India was established in Ludhiana, Punjab in 1969 A.D.

Introduction

Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys, quails, guinea fowls, and geese for the purpose of farming meat or egg for food. Indian poultry industry is one of the fasted growing segments of the agricultural sector today in India. Undoubtedly, this impressive growth is a result of several factors such as active development support from the state and central government, research institutes, international collaboration and private sector participation. Indian poultry industry is self sufficient, supported by a broad and strong genetic base in which the productivity levels of broilers and layers are equal to those achieved elsewhere (i.e. in the United States of America and the European Union). Raising of day old chicks up to the stage of sale with assistance in the form of services from hatcheries, medical care from veterinarians, supply of medicine from pharmaceutical companies, manufacturing quality medicine, supply of poultry equipments and supply of nutritive poultry feed by commercial poultry feed manufacturers and financial assistance from various financial institutions are included under poultry industry.

In the recent days, poultry farming has become an important industry in our country. The changes, it has undergone in the past few years are quite surprising. The scope of the poultry farming is very much and there is lot of chances for improvement in this field. With the help of sophisticated instruments, the production of poultry products can be increased. Creation of public aware is needed for overall development of poultry industry. The egg is needed for over all development of poultry industry. The egg earlier treated as non-vegetarian item, is not being considered by most as not so.

Introduction

Milk is a natural food source of mammals. Animals produce milk to feed their young-ones until they are ready for solid feed. Cow milk contains protein, vitamins and minerals which are essential for the overall growth of the body. Cow milk contains a lot of nutrients and it has great role for overall health. Cow milk helps to boost the immune system of humans. Cow milk has a high content of calcium and minerals which plays a key role in maintaining bone density. Because of its high calcium content, cow’s milk is also considered great for teeth health. Cow milk has all essential amino acids that are required for growth and development. It is very beneficial for children as it helps to grow with physically and mentally. Cow milk help to reduce weight loss as it loaded with protein which is essential for weight loss. Calcium and vitamin D of milk increases the metabolic rate of the body. A better metabolic rate helps in burning calories faster. Drinking cow milk regularly helps you in maintaining the blood sugar levels in the body. Cow’s milk has essential minerals and vitamins that help in processing the food normally and this helps to maintain the insulin and glucose level.

Introduction

Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing meat and healthy meat. Goats also play major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. Farm can start from 1 male goat and 1 female goat. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial and many people are taking up as a challenge to meet the demand and supply. There is good encouragement from governments and providing subsidies on especially stall fed goat farming. Most of the farmers, choosing stall fed goat farming as it has its own advantages as compared to open grazing methods.

Introduction

Sheeps were first domesticated by human being, many thousands of years ago for their wool, meat and skins. It provides a source of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive building to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. The foundation stock is relatively cheap and the flock can be multiplied rapidly. Sheep are economical convertor of grass into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different source of income to the shepherd. The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.

A biological sample received in the laboratory should be processed as below:

Fresh Green Sample: During metabolism trial period it is always advisable to take a sample of fresh green fodder daily so as to  avoid chemical composition variation from place-to-place in a field. Take about two and half kilo sample from the bulk, cut the whole plant including the stem and stalks with a pair of scissors into small pieces and mix thoroughly. Weigh about 100g accurately in the aluminium tray 23156cm approximately for estimation of moisture. It is always recommended to weigh the sample immediately in the laboratory so as to avoid the losses of moisture.

Procurement is acquisition of goods and services.
Procurement includes:
• Planning the acquisition
• Planning the contracting
• Requesting proposals 
• Selecting a vendor
• Administering the contract
• Closing the contract 

Planning the acquisition

It is based on goals of an enterprise acquisition varies – depends on what, when and where to produce. Based on these factors acquisition requirements are arrived.

Studies on Volatile Fatty Acids Production and Kinetics of VFA Pool as Determined by Using “Isotope Dilution Technique”

(Method of Krishna and Ekern, 1974a,b and c)
Details of Experiment
Materials
    (i)    Animals : Two fistulated sheep of Dala Texel breed weighing about 72 and 76 kg are selected. 
    (ii)    Experimental Diet :
        Basal Diet : Two experimental sheep are maintained on 1.1 kg early cut timothy hay per day. The ration is divided in four equal parts and offered four times a day during the preliminary period of about twenty days. One day before infusion of labelled VFA, the sheep are fed regularly at one hour interval (1.1 kg hay divided in equal parts) to help in increasing the mixing rate of rumen ingesta. The animals are given water adlibitum but they are not allowed to drink water during infusion. Digestible energy and metabolizable energy (ME) of the basal diet is determined by conducting a separate metabolism trial on the same sheep.

Metabolic disorders are classed as illness associated with a failure in one of the body hormone or enzyme systems, storage disease related to lack of metabolism of secretory products because of the lack of production of a specific enzyme, or the failure or reduced activity of some metabolic function. There are numerous genetic, metabolic disorders in poultry but these are rare in commercial poultry. In poultry it is usual to include under the heading of metabolic disorders those conditions associated with increased metabolism, rapid growth rate or high egg production that result in the failure of a body system because of the increased work-load on that organ or system. Metabolic disorders that result from an increase production of, or deficiency of or failure in the production, synthesis, or transport of an enzyme, hormone or secretary mechanism. Metabolic disorders that result from high nutrient intake, rapid growth, high metabolic rate, pulmonary or systemic hypertension, and high egg production or a rapid increase in egg production. Other conditions that could be classed as metabolic disorders related to: (a) management defects; (b) nutritional deficiency or excess; (c) infectious agents; (d) toxins.

The agro-food & slaughter house animal by-product industry generates large amounts of waste that contribute to environmental contamination and leads to pollution. Animal byproduct production, as part of the meat and poultry processing chain, is huge. Animal fat waste constitutes some of the most relevant waste and the treatment of such waste is quite costly because environmental regulations are quite strict. Fossil fuels remain the main source of primary energy accounting for over 80 % of worldwide energy consumption. The continuous consumption of non-renewable resources is leading to their fast depletion while causing the accumulation of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Also, energy demands are expected to rise by over 25 % by 2040, which claims for a shift toward the use of renewable and carbon-neutral fuels to ensure environmental and economic sustainability. About millions animals (cattle, sheep, pigs and goats) and poultry (mainly chickens and turkeys) were slaughtered various parts of countries. Such a high number of slaughtered animals produces enormous amounts of waste animal residue including fats that need to be treated to reduce pollution or recycled to

Programming techniques are used the mathematical tools by the scientists, economists, and planners to specify the optimum combination of resources and enterprises in farms and firms, to identify the profit maximizing mixes of commodities to be produced, to specify the cost minimizing methods of production and transportation of goods, to identify the least cost locations from which raw materials can be purchased, to determine the locations of production at which a particular commodity should be produced and the consumption centres to which it should be shipped, and to specify the least cost ingredients of a feed or ration which must meet the specified nutritional requirements. Programming techniques can be either linear or non-linear. Although several non-linear programming techniques (like quadratic, integer, separable, dynamic programming, etc., which are very complex to work with) are available, we will largely deal with linear programming technique and to a certain extent will brief the theory of dynamic programming.

Project Appraisal : Assessing Project Benefits

Project appraisal helps to determine which among various projects one is to accept and which to reject. This is however possible only when costs and benefits have been identified, priced, and valued. A number of techniques of project appraisal can be discussed under two heads :

Components of Project Finance
1. Capital Structure Determination: Deciding on the mix of debt, equity, and other sources of financing that will be used to fund the project. The goal is to structure the capital in a way that minimizes costs, maximizes returns, and balances risk. Here’s an elaborate breakdown of the steps involved in capital structure determination:
Understanding Financing Options
• Debt Financing: Borrowing funds that must be repaid with interest. Common sources include bank loans, bonds, and credit lines. Debt financing is often preferred for its tax benefits (interest payments are tax-deductible) and lower cost compared to equity. • Equity Financing: Raising capital by selling shares of the project to investors. This does not require repayment but dilutes ownership. Equity financing is useful for sharing risk and avoiding the burden of debt repayments.
• Hybrid Instruments: Combining features of both debt and equity, such as convertible bonds or preferred shares. These can provide flexibility and attract a broader range of investors.
• Other Sources: Grants, subsidies, and public-private partnerships (PPPs) can also contribute to project financing without adding to debt or diluting equity.

Project for Rural People on Chicken

For rural people Desi (indigenous) chicken plays an important role. Family poultry farming is a part and parcel of a typical rural household in India touching social, cultural and economic aspects. People residing in rural areas primarily maintain their indigenous chicken under backyard farming. With the same management system the rural people can rear improved varieties of chicken instead of their traditional counterpart. The improved varieties being Giriraja, Vanaraja, Kuroiler, Gramapriya, Gramalaxmi, Swarnadhara, Krishna J etc. A model project on improved chicken is given herewith:

A unit consisting of 100 number Vanaraja or Giriraja is economical and remunerative to the farmers whose family labour will be utilized for rearing these chickens. Initially, the farmer will buy about 225 straight-run day- old chicks. The males will be sold at 20 weeks of age. The females will be maintained for 1.5 years. In order to have continuous operation, next batch of 225 chicks have to be procured 6 months before disposal of the old batch. Birds will collect their feed through foraging or scavenging in the field. Supplementary feeding will be provided to meet their requirements.

INTRODUCTION

Rabbit production is the upcoming livestock farming throughout the world. The domestic rabbit are raised meat, fur –skins and wool. Climatic condition of Karnataka are not favourable for raising wool breeds of rabbits, but are definitely well for broiler rabbit production.

Rabbits require less space for housing and highly prolific. Initial investment for rabbits farming is very less and maintenance cost is also very low. There is no religious barriers in rabbit meet consumption and rabbit meat contains very low cholesterol when compared to the other meats.

Rabbit farming can be very well fit into mixed farming systems. It can be adopted by small and marginal for maximum utilization of lands and resources, and to derive substantial income under rural condition.