eChapters

Reproductive is fundamental property of living beings. While lower animals reproduce by simple methods, the higher animals attain greater degree of animals reproduce by complexities in the reproductive functions. Basic units (Gonads) of males and females are testis and ovaries respectively. The gonads of each sex perform dual roles:

• Formation of gametes (sperms by testis and ovum by the ovaries)
• Production of hormones.

Role of Hormones in Reproduction

10.1. Introduction

During last few decades dairy animal production has been intensified several folds, along with this reproductive problems have also increased. For efficient dairy animal production, the cow should show regular reproductive activities like cyclic breeding activity, pregnancy at appropriate time, give birth of a live healthy calf and again pregnant after sometimes. If any of these activities are inadequate, then it substantially affects the profitability of the farm. There is an ample scope of improvement of these reproductive setbacks through traditional breeding, feeding and management. However, reproductive problems can be minimized by the use of recently developed reproductive techniques. It not only minimizes reproductive problems, but also improves the reproductive efficiency of the dairy herd and better exploitation of the genetic potential of high merit animals.

Retailing
Retailingincludes all activities involved in selling and providing goods and  services to ultimate consumers for personal or household use.
Classification of retail establishments
Based on ownership
• Independent retailer- one store ownership
• Chain retailer- many stores but owner is one
• Franchise – many owners of many stores

Retained fetal membrane (RFM) in cow is a condition in which fetal membranes or placenta fail to separate and expelled by 12-24 hours after the birth of calf. It is a common in bovines and is usually associated with dystocia, abortion etc. Retained placenta in bovines predisposes the animal to uterine infection and thereby leads to infertility.

Introduction

Rickettsial diseases in poultry are caused by various species of bacteria belonging to the genus Rickettsia. These diseases can have significant economic implications for the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and trade restrictions. Rickettsial diseases affecting poultry are relatively uncommon compared to other pathogens but can still occur. Rickettsial organisms are tiny, pleomorphic, weakly gram-negative bacilli that multiply by binary fission. The Rickettsia requires an arthropod for transmission and to complete its life cycle. The organisms are non-motile and non-capsulated and possess both DNA and RNA. Some of the rickettsial diseases affecting poultry include:

1. Rocky Mountain spotted fever: Chickens can be infected with various species of Rickettsia, including Rickettsia rickettsia, which causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever in humans. In chickens, rickettsial infections can lead to symptoms such as fever, lethargy, decreased egg production, respiratory distress, and neurological signs.

Robotics is transforming livestock production by automating repetitive, labour-intensive and precision-dependent operations. This chapter examines automated milking, robotic feeding, manure removal, health monitoring, drones and autonomous herd-management systems across dairy, poultry, swine and sheep production. Integration with AI, IoT and sensors creates connected environments capable of continuous monitoring and data-driven action. Benefits include higher productivity, lower labour requirements, timely animal care and more efficient resource use. Challenges include substantial investment, technical complexity, maintenance and farmer acceptance. Emerging developments such as autonomous farms, swarm robotics, solar-powered equipment and climate-smart robotic systems may further strengthen animal welfare, environmental sustainability and global food security.

A number of animals are used in this country for conducting a variety of experiments. There has been a long felt need to prescribe guidelines and procedures for animal experimentation covering all aspects. The Central Government has constituted a Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) under PCA Act 1960 to ensure that experimental animals are not subjected to unnecessary pain or suffering before, during or after the performance of experiment on them. For this purpose the government has made “Breeding of and Experiment on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules, 1998 as amended during 2001 and 2006 to regulate the experimentation on animal. Under these provisions, the concerned establishments are required to get themselves registered with CPCSEA, form IAEC, get their Animal House Facilities inspected, and also get specific projects for research cleared by CPCSEA before commencing the research on animals. Further, breeding and trade of animals for such experimentation are also regulated under these Rules.

Role of water
Water is the principal constituent of living plants as well as animal body. With the maturity of seed, water content decreases. Animal body is composed of two thirds of water – intra and extra cellular fluids, and that a feed is any substance used by the body for building tissue, it is obvious that water is very important nutrient. Experiments have shown that animals may live for 100 days without organic feed, but they may die within 5 to 10 days, when deprived off water. Cell rigidity and elasticity imparts a definite form to body, which may be changed by the liquid content of the cell. Due to its high dielectric constant, oppositely charged ions co – exist in water without much interference. Hydrolysis is an important chemical process in digestion and other metabolism, where H+ and OH- ions of water are introduced into bigger molecules and these bigger molecules are broken down into smaller units.
Lubrication is yet another important function where water prevents friction or drying in joints, conjunctiva, mouth, pleura surrounding lungs, other soft organs. Body heat regulation is carried out due to certain properties – for example, due to high specific heat conducting power, water can carry away heat from the site of production and distributing it throughout the body. Yet another due to such property, highest latent heat of evaporation from skin, lungs or tongue. Oxygen and carbon di oxide are soluble in water, hence gaseous exchange takes place in the tissues, for example, fish. The “aqueous humour” of eye helps to keep up the ‘shape’ and ‘elasticity’ of the eye – ball and acts as refractive medium.

There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal?s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy. High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. These readjustments, generally referred to as adaptations, may be favorable or unfavorable to economic interests of humans, but are essential for survival of the animal. Thus, an increase in air temperature, such as that expected in different scenarios of climate change, would affect directly animal performance by affecting animal heat balance. Potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not been thoroughly explored. Changes in crop availability and quality, which have been the primary focus of previous studies, affect animal production through changes in feed supplies. Analyses of direct impacts of climate change on livestock production are few. Changes in climate would directly lead to reductions in summer season milk production and conception rates in dairy cows. Because voluntary feed intake (VFI) is the primary factor influencing the production capacity of livestock, accurate prediction of the feed consumption of livestock under heat stress is a precursor to accurate assessment of changes in production resulting from changes to a warmer climate. Quantification of potential impacts of climate change on livestock production allows producers to gain a better understanding of the magnitude of the changes in production levels faced under climate change. Projected economic losses resulting from temperature-induced reductions in production may justify mitigation of these temperature increases through changes in management practices, such as installation of shades or sprinklers in feedlots or evaporative cooling of barns. With severe economic losses predicted in livestock as a result of climate change, it?s very essential to understand the different intricacies of climate and its impact on livestock production. This will help us to prepare ourselves better for ameliorating the adverse impact of weather parameters on animal production. This will intern prevent the severe economic losses incurred in livestock industry as a result of changing climate.

Sheep and goats in temperate regions are seasonal breeders with breeding activity mostly restricted to short day seasons of the year (Maule 1962). Endocrine mechanisms regulated by the variations of the day length stimulate reproductive activity to have maximum conceptions during the period of shorter days and correspondingly maximum births during longer day periods after a 5 months gestation (Hafez, 1987). Thus, essence of seasonal breeding is to ensure maximum births during the period congenial for survival of young ones, including availability of feeding materials and favorable climate. In tropical regions with minimum variation of day length and less distinct seasons, feed availability is not much affected by seasons in particular. Hence most species of animals maintains reproductive activity throughout the year (Devendra and Burns 1983). However there found to have influence of various locally relevant factors affecting comfort of living such as feed availability, weather and other environmental factors. Accordingly, there occur seasonal peaks and periods of restricted reproductive activity and pattern of the same can vary according to the local situations prevailing year to year (Goel and Agarwal, 1988 and Wani et al. 1980).

Introduction

The competition between human and livestock population for the existing animal and plant resources has been of great concern to the poultry nutritionists. Today the poultry industry has already challenged by the high price of the feed ingredients. Moreover in the next century there will be a shortage of conventional feed stuffs for use in poultry production. Efforts are on to look forward for the new feed resources and to evaluate them for their inclusion in the poultry ration. However many of the feed stuffs are characterized by the presence of certain incriminating factors. The incorporation of feed stuffs containing incriminating factors may adversely affect the performance of poultry. The nutritional strategy involving the use of feed enzymes offer immense potential to overcome the problems. The use of enzymes in feed mixtures of growing poultry particularly for young chicks has been the subject of much research activity in the recent decades. The interest in the feed enzymes is a reflection in changing the attitude of the society and the economic climate of the feed industry. It has been seen that approximately 187 million metric tons of cereal grains (FAO, 2011) and 26.02 million tons oil seeds as per the trade estimate for 2011-12 are produced in India which yield non starch polysaccharides (NSP) as a part of variety of products.

Intensive farming operations are particularly vulnerable to an increased risk of biohazards due to their densely populated livestock and close confinement. This increased animal density creates an environment where diseases can spread rapidly if not adequately managed. To mitigate these risks and safeguard the health and productivity of dairy herds, stringent farm biosecurity measures are essential. Farm biosecurity, a comprehensive framework of preventive measures and protocols, has emerged as a pivotal strategy in ensuring animal health and curbing the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). By prioritizing biosecurity, dairy farmers can maintain a healthy and disease-free environment for their animals, ultimately ensuring the quality and safety of dairy products while promoting sustainable and responsible farming practices. In recent years, the interconnected challenges of animal health and AMR have prompted a re-evaluation of agricultural practices and disease management strategies.

What is Farm Biosecurity?

Farm biosecurity refers to the set of practices and measures employed to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious diseases within animal production systems. It encompasses a wide array of strategies, ranging from physical barriers and hygiene protocols to monitoring and surveillance programs. The core principle of farm biosecurity is to mitigate the risk of disease incursions by minimizing the exposure of animals to pathogens, thereby preventing outbreaks and reducing the need for antimicrobial interventions. This strategic approach can be broadly categorized into ‘external farm biosecurity’ and ‘internal farm biosecurity’, each addressing distinct aspects of disease prevention within the farm environment.

Introduction
Animal behavior, a fascinating field of study, encompasses a wide range of activities and responses to internal and external stimuli. Among the various factors that shape these behaviour’s, hormones and drugs are particularly significant. These biochemical agents profoundly influence the physiological and psychological aspects of animals, leading to observable changes in their behaviour. This introduction explores the roles of hormones and drugs in animal behavior, detailing their mechanisms, effects, and implications for broader scientific understanding and practical applications. Hormones and drugs play vital roles in shaping animal behavior through complex biochemical pathways. Hormones act as internal regulators, orchestrating responses to environmental and physiological changes, while drugs, whether therapeutic or environmental, modulate these processes, often with profound behavioral consequences. Understanding these influences is crucial for advancing animal welfare, conservation efforts, and biomedical research, ultimately enriching our comprehension of the intricate relationship between biology and behavior in the animal kingdom.
Hormones and Animal Behaviour Deliver
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream, where they travel to target organs and tissues, eliciting specific physiological responses. These responses, in turn, influence behaviour. The following are some key hormones that play critical roles in animal behavior:
1. Corticosteroids
• Function: Corticosteroids, such as cortisol in mammals and corticosterone in birds and reptiles, are released by the adrenal glands in response to stress.
• Behavioral Impact: They prepare the body for the fight-or-flight response, affecting behaviour’s related to fear, anxiety, and aggression. Chronic stress exposure and elevated corticosteroid levels can lead to long-term behavioral changes, including heightened anxiety and altered social interactions.

Introduction

Food security is defined as "a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" (The State of Food Insecurity, 2001) (see http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/). As of 2015, the concept of food security has mostly focused on food calories rather than the quality and nutrition of food. Thus, food security usually emphasizes food quantity and therefore "nutrition security" is used for the quality dimension. The concept of food security has four dimensions: availability, accessibility, utilization and vulnerability. The interactions among them determine how food secure a country is or how adequate, steady and risk-free food consumption is at the household and individual levels (Kumar and Ayyappan, 2014). Though substantial progress has been achieved in reducing food insecurity, maintaining food security at the national and household level is a major challenge for India (Singh, 2014). The present article briefs about global and Indian scenarios on food security aspects, and the key role of livestock in achieving zero hunger by means of livestock-derived foods such as milk, egg and meat products.

Profitable broiler production demands dietary nutrients including energy, protein, mineral, vitamins and additives as per the body requirement to meet high growth of the birds. Though energy and protein are the principal nutrients required for growth of birds but the essential role of minerals in poultry production cannot be ignored. Minerals have multifaceted role in the body. They are the components of bones and other soft tissues and play significant role in acid base balance, osmotic pressure regulation and membrane permeability. Trace minerals have major role in functioning of various enzymatic, metabolic and biochemical reaction for effective utilization of nutrients. They are constituents of many proteins involved in metabolism of nutrients, immune defense systems and hormone secretion pathways. Deficiency diseases, metabolic disorders, poor growth rate, low production, low hatchability and low feed efficiency are normally observed on deficiency or imbalance supply of minerals to livestock and poultry.

Along with other trace minerals, selenium is supplemented in broiler ration as an essential trace mineral required for normal growth and production of broiler birds. It was discovered in 1817 by J.J. Berzelius.

Nutrients play a fundamental role in ensuring the health, productivity, reproduction, immunity, and overall welfare of animals. The balance and availability of macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water are crucial for optimal physiological and metabolic processes. This chapter explores the role of nutrients in different aspects of animal health and well-being.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for most animals, playing a critical role in sustaining metabolic processes, maintaining body temperature, and supporting physical activity. In ruminants, carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen to produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetate, propionate and butyrate, which serve as energy substrates.
Health: Adequate carbohydrate intake prevents energy deficits, which can lead to ketosis, fatty liver, or hypoglycemia, particularly in lactating animals. Production: Energy from carbohydrates drives milk production in dairy animals and growth in meat-producing species.
Reproduction: Insufficient carbohydrate availability can delay puberty, impair estrus cycles, and reduce fertility. Immunity: Energy deficits weaken immune responses, increasing susceptibility to infections.
Welfare: Optimal carbohydrate nutrition minimizes stress and supports natural behaviours like grazing or rumination.

Introduction

Feeding cost and the price of poultry products have recently increased due to increasing competition between humans and animals for the same feed resources having different valuable nutrients. As you know that like other living creatures, the birds do need several nutrients in their diets to maintain optimum body growth, normal health and maximum production of edible egg and meat. Accordingly the efforts should always be made to feed poultry with a diet adequately balanced with almost all essential nutrients so that they do perform efficiently within a normal physiological form.

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

Laying and broiler breeding are the backbone of the poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are the two most important reproductive traits of breeder birds that highly influence the supply of quality day-old commercial chicks and growth of poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are parameters of economic viability (King’Ori, 2011; Malik et al., 2015) and interrelated heritable traits that vary among breeds, variety and individuals in a breed or variety. Fertility refers to the average percentage of eggs that were fertilized and hatchability refers to the proportion of chicks hatched from the total number of eggs set for incubation (hatchability on the basis of total egg set), and based on the total number of fertile eggs (hatchability on the basis of fertile eggs set) (Wolc et al., 2019).

Introduction

The livestock occupies a significant niche in the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent from the dawn of civilization. During the initial days of civilization, animals served human society in many ways. The livestock is not only producing high biological value products i.e., milk, meat but also provide manure for maintaining soil health, draught power for crop production, wool and fiber for apparel industry, low cost means of transport in rural and desert areas, companion for sports and of course a "readily disposable asset" for any kind of emergency expenditure. Hence, livestock represents one of the major driving forces for the growth of the rural economy. As a result, the livestock industry becomes one of the niche sectors of the national economy to propel faster growth along with securing the livelihood of millions of people. During the twentieth century, balanced ration was the key focal point of animal nutrition research either for enhancing the productivity or managing the livestock economy through interventions of knowledge in the areas of improvement of poor quality roughages, bypass protein, bypass fat, mineral supplements, complete feed blocks, vitamins, area specific mineral mixture, feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, hormones etc. However, during the beginning of the twenty first century, several issues appeared pertaining to the livestock sector such as feed quality and safety, designer animal products, healthy animal products, ecological treatment for digestive disorder, organic animal production, residues of antibiotics, hormones and heavy metals in accordance with the consumer preference and awareness. In the light of concerns on "transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from animal to human", several nations have imposed bans on application of antibiotics as feed additives. Keeping in view the above perspective, research is underway around the world to find alternatives to antibiotics to guard the gastrointestinal of animals without compromising productivity or product quality of livestock.