eChapters

Introduction

During the intensive system of poultry production birds are exposed to several types of stresses. The birds can tolerate mild stress but when the stress is severe, there is imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants which lead to oxidative stress and lipid peroxidative damage of tissues, ultimately results in poor performance. Nutrition has a strong impact on oxidative stress. Insufficient intake of antioxidants, a high intake of prooxidants, or both may lead to oxidative stress. The detrimental effects of oxidation process can be prevented by addition of antioxidant compounds in the feed. Vitamin E, carotenoids and selenium (Se) are among important antioxidant components of poultry diets. It is important to understand the role of antioxidants in poultry nutrition in general and in production and reproduction in particular. The chapter, here in will discuss the stressors in poultry production, oxidative stress and possible alleviation through dietary antioxidant supplementation.

Buck can be mated to several does not gives many young ones. So quality of buck will be passed on to many number of young one. Choose bucks whose relatives have good commercial character performance can be known by looking at breeding record should have too well development testicle, have good growth, good healthy condition, not be too fat, good physical condition.

Best time is when animal is 2 kgs of body weight and age of 3-4 months.

It is advisable to purchase buck from good reliable source since it brings new characteristics and avoid inbreeding.

The mating of the buck of particular breed with die of another breed is cross breeding usually cross breeding has better commercial value → Hybrids which has hybrid vigour → grow faster, better litter size.

Usually breeding of 2 hybrid is not advisable because we will not be sure which hybrid characteristics will be passed on to young ones.

The back yard rabbitry has mixed breeding programme of low quality with reference to commercial characteristics. To improve back yard rabbitry, good well known breeding buck should be introduced to have better performance.

Proper records can be maintained and individual performance can be noted.

Disadvantages: A number of males should be maintained which is not economical.

Advantages of polygamous mating: Economical because 1 male can be used for 4-5 females. We can use postpartum estrus effectively.

Immediately after parturition after 7 days they come to heat. Breeding can be done 7 days after parturition after separating the young ones. [Weaning age 21 days]

But this is usually not followed because the number of young ones born reduces subsequently.

Disadvantages: Proper records cannot be maintained.

Selection is a phenomenon of giving preference to certain individuals in a population to reproduce over other individuals that are deprived of the opportunity to reproduce. In common parlance, it is the process to choose individuals from the herd that are going to produce the next generation and influence the performance of the herd. Performance of a herd is guided by the genes of the parents. In a herd, males give rise to more off springs and hence selection of males is an opportunity to boost cattle husbandry. The contribution of males to the inheritance of polygenic traits is equal with that of females. Hence, it is central to pay equal emphasis while selecting males and females. Selection of sire is more important than dam selection due to numerous reasons. The first reason is that a sire produces more numbers of progenies compared to one dam. Since a sire is called “half the herd”, it determines the performance of the herd. Modern initiatives like artificial insemination and frozen semen technology has further extended the use of sire and highlights the importance of sire selection. Artificial insemination has allowed the superior traits to reach different corners of the globe and this has benefitted the present generation at large. Frozen semen technology together with artificial insemination is milestone to the field of genetics and breeding. It is now possible to

Selection of site for a poultry farm: The following points should be considered while selecting site or location for a poultry farm.

The farm should be located at an elevated area with proper facilities for drainage.

To protect the farm against strong wind, tall trees may be planted surrounding the farm complex.

The farm should be located not too far from city to bring in and take out materials.

The commercial farm should be located near to marketing centres.

The breeder farm should be located in an isolated area away from commercial farm to ensure biosecurity.

The farm should have an easy access to connecting roads.

The site should have provision of electricity.

The desirable soil type for a poultry farm is loamy or sandy loam.

There should be provision of abundant potable water at the site. The water should be tested for various impurities like total solids, microbiological contamination, high percentage of salts of Na, K and Chlorine, nitrite, nitrate etc. Total bacterial count and Coliform count should be 0/ml.

There are many migratory, semi-migratory and sedentary shepherd communities in India with sheep rearing along with goats as the main livelihood)Besides scores of land less wages-earning families keep small numbers of goats for crucial supplementary income. Sheep and goat farming, due to its quicker and better returns on investment provides an additional source of income to farmers who normally depend on crops for their livelihood) Thus these animals fit in ideally in a mixed farming system. In India, goats and sheep are mostly maintained under extensive system which includes migratory, transhumance, free range, grazing community pastures, stubbles of cropped lands supplemented with crop residues and tree-lopping. Although a number of management systems are in practices varying from region to region these may be conveniently divided in to extensive, Semiintensive and Intensive systems.

This chapter introduces the relationship between sheep breed, production system and the type and quality of wool produced. It classifies sheep into fine-wool, longwool, medium or crossbred, carpet-wool and hair breeds. Particular attention is given to Merino and Indian breeds such as Chokla, Magra, Marwari, Nali, Deccani, Gaddi, Rampur Bushair and Bhakarwal. The chapter also examines extensive, pastoral, mixed and intensive production systems and their influence on wool characteristics and economic value.

Origin and Domestication of Sheep

The domesticated sheep belongs to phylum-Chordata, class-Mammalia, order- Artiodactyla, family - Bovidae, sub-family - Caprinae, genus - Ovis and species- aries. They are hollow horned, cloven-hoofed ruminants of relatively smaller size. Sheep plays an important role in Indian agrarian economy as it is having multi facet utilities like meat, wool, skin, manure and to some extent milk and transport also. Marginal and sub-marginal lands of arid and semi-arid tropics are well adapted by sheep. Among the different wild species, Asiatic (Ovis orientalis) species of mouflon is considered to be the ancestor of present day sheep. Sheep were domesticated by man at around 9000 BC. The reference of role of sheep in the economy of mankind is found in the history of civilization of Mesopotamia, Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa in Northern India.

This chapter introduces the commercial handling and processing of shell eggs from reception through packing. It examines pre-processing inspection, egg washing, cleaning, sanitization, drying, oiling, shell treatment, candling and defect removal. Automated grading and packing operations, plant layout, equipment, effluent management, sanitation and cleaning-in-place are also addressed. The chapter emphasizes traceability, good manufacturing practices and careful handling to prevent contamination and breakage. It demonstrates how packing stations preserve the quality delivered from the farm rather than creating quality after the fact.

Introduction

After the discovery that low concentrations of antibiotics included in livestock diets had a beneficial effect on production efficiency, the use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) became a common practice, benefiting both the livestock industry and consumers. Antibiotic growth promotion in agricultural and animal production has been practiced for about 50 years (Dibner et al., 2007). Orally ingested antibiotics promote growth and efficiency of poultry and other animals. Early indications of a beneficial effect on production efficiency in poultry and swine were reported by Moore et al. (1946) and Jukes et al. (1950).

Livestock nutrition is a complex field that involves the interplay of various nutrients to ensure optimal health, growth, reproduction and productivity. Nutrients do not function in isolation; rather, they interact in multiple ways synergistically or antagonistically affecting digestion, absorption, metabolism, and overall animal performance. Understanding these interrelationships is crucial for formulating balanced diets that meet the specific needs of different livestock species at various physiological stages. Nutrients in livestock diets can be broadly classified into macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
Each nutrient has a specific role, but their interactions influence bioavailability and utilization. For instance, dietary proteins and carbohydrates have a direct impact on energy metabolism, affecting the animal’s ability to utilize other nutrients efficiently. Excess protein can increase energy expenditure due to deamination, while a deficiency in energy can limit protein synthesis. Similarly, the balance between dietary fat and carbohydrate affects energy density and digestion, influencing growth performance and body composition.
Among minerals, calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) exhibit a well-known interrelationship. Both are essential for bone development, but their absorption and utilization depend on the Ca:P ratio in the diet. An imbalance whether an excess or deficiency of one can result in metabolic disorders such as rickets or osteoporosis. Additionally, excess phosphorus reduces calcium absorption, leading to skeletal deformities, while excessive calcium can interfere with magnesium and zinc absorption, affecting overall metabolic functions. The interaction between iron, copper, and zinc is another critical aspect of mineral
nutrition. High dietary iron can interfere with copper absorption, leading to anaemia, while excessive zinc can inhibit copper metabolism, causing growth retardation and immune suppression.

The oesophageal groove (also known as the reticular groove) is a physiological structure and reflex in ruminants that plays a crucial role in the digestion of milk and liquids, particularly in young animals. Its significance and the timing of its closure vary across different species of animals, reflecting adaptations to their feeding behaviors, nutritional needs, and developmental stages.
Anatomy and function of the oesophageal groove
The oesophageal groove is a muscular fold located in the reticulum, the first compartment of the ruminant stomach. When activated, it forms a channel that directs ingested liquids (e.g., milk in young animals) directly to the omasum and abomasum, bypassing the rumen. This mechanism prevents milk from fermenting in the rumen, ensuring efficient digestion and nutrient absorption. The closure of the groove is triggered by specific stimuli, such as suckling, milk temperature, and sensory cues like the smell or taste of milk.
Species-specific significance and closure time
The significance and closure time of the oesophageal groove differ among species, influenced by their physiological needs and feeding practices.
1. Cattle (Bos taurus)
Significance: In calves, the oesophageal groove is critical for survival during the milk-feeding stage. By directing milk to the abomasum (the true stomach), it avoids fermentation in the rumen, which can lead to bloating and metabolic disturbances.
Closure time: The reflex is most active in calves and begins to diminish as they transition to a diet of solid feed, usually around 8–12 weeks of age. In adult cattle, the reflex is rarely triggered, although specific
stimuli (e.g., salty solutions) can induce it.

Introduction

Synbiotics refer to nutritional supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics in form of a synergism. The synbiotic concept was first introduced as “mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of health-promoting bacteria. Probiotics are live bacteria which are intended to colonize the large intestine and confer physiological health benefits to the host. A prebiotic is a food or dietary supplement product that enhances the activity of probiotics. Synbiotics are not drugs and the effects are due to changes in bacteria population or enhancement of activity of the bacteria. A synbiotic may contain fiber, but all fiber is not necessarily a synbiotic.

Using prebiotics and probiotics in combination is often described as synbiotic, but the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) recommends that the term “synbiotic” be used only if the net health benefit is synergistic. A synbiotic contains fiber such as fructose oligosaccharide, galactose oligosaccharide, etc. and is intended to stimulate the microflora in the large intestine. The combination of probiotics and prebiotics work separately in the small and large intestine, but synergistically increase the overall gut health. Prebiotic has shown to increase the population and/or function of the probiotic it is paired with, as the probiotic is an external species, whereas prebiotics stimulate the flora which is already present.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process that is affected by variety of factors. The primary goal of making silage is to maximize the preservation of original nutrients in the forage crop for feeding at a later date. Unfortunately, fermentation in the silo is a much uncontrolled process usually leading to less than optimal preservation of nutrients. In order to assist in the fermentation process, various silage additives have been used to improve the nutrient and energy recovery in silage, often with subsequent improvements in animal performance (Henderson, 1993; Bolsen et al., 1996; Muck and Kung, 1997; Kung and Muck, 1997; Muhlbach, 2000). Their main functions are to either increase nutritional value of silage or improve fermentation so that storage losses are reduced. The benefits obtained from silage additives depend upon their influence on the silage fermentation process. These benefits are usually measured by the reduction in fermentation losses and/or improvement in silage quality and feeding value.

Ensiling is the term given for all physical and chemical changes that take place when forage with sufficient moisture content (60-65%) is stored in the absence of air for silage preservation. Silage fermentation is an exceptionally complex process involving biochemical interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. Successful silage production depends upon the promotion of the fermentation brought by beneficial bacteria. The process is based on spontaneous lactic acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions. The lactic acid bacteria ferment the water-soluble carbohydrates in the crop to lactic acid, and to a lesser extent to acetic acid. Due to the production of these acids, the pH of the ensiled material decreases and spoilage micro-organisms are inhibited. The ideal characteristics of material for silage preservation are: DM content above 20% and an adequate level of fermentable substrate (8-10 percent of DM) in the form of water soluble carbohydrate. The ensiling material should also ideally have a physical form that allows easy compaction in the silo. Materials such as maize stover, sorghum stover and grass can be ensiled successfully, while crop residues such as rice and wheat straw, with low water soluble content, do not fulfill these requirements, and therefore pre-treatments, such as fine chopping or use of additives, or both, may be necessary.

Definition of silage: Silage refers to the product obtained when fresh, high-moisture green fodder undergoes fermentation in a controlled anaerobic environment. This process generates volatile fatty acids that help preserve the green material for an extended period.
Ensiling: The act of preserving green fodder as silage is termed ensiling
Silo: A silo is a sealed container designed for the preparation of silage. In India, pit silos are commonly used, typically measuring 2.4 to 3 meters in depth. For every cubic meter of space, approximately 400 kg of fodder can be accommodated, while a cubic foot can hold between 18 to 22 kg of fodder in a pit silo. Other types of silos include trench silos, bunker silos and tower silos. In rural areas, katcha silos are often constructed by excavating a pit or trench in the ground, with the walls and floor usually coated with a mixture of cow dung and clay in a 1:1 ratio.
Crops suitable for silage making: Crops that are high in soluble carbohydrates are ideal for silage production. Suitable options for ensiling include maize, sorghum, pearl millet, Napier grass and oats. Leguminous fodder crops are generally not suitable for ensiling unless they are combined with carbohydrate-rich fodders in a ratio of 1:3. The recommended ratio of green, succulent fodder to dry straw is 4:1 and the crops should contain approximately 30-35% dry matter at the time of ensiling. Hollow-stemmed plants are typically unsuitable for ensiling due to the air trapped within the stems; however, if the stems are trampled, they can yield good silage. To effectively ensile cultivated or natural grasses an addition of 3-3.5% molasses is necessary. Grasses and legumes present challenges for ensiling; grasses tend to be low in soluble carbohydrates, while legumes possess high moisture content, elevated protein levels and increased mineral content, which enhance their buffering capacity and resistance to pH fluctuations. Harvesting: The crop should be harvested between flowering and milk stage as they contain maximum amount of nutrients at that time. Crops with thick stems are suitable for silage making whereas thin stemmed crops are conserved for hay making.

It is recognized in developed countries that the production of silage of high quality cultivated forage can be a valuable component for the development of a high-performing and low-cost system of animal production, using a relatively low level of purchased concentrates. However, this appears inappropriate for smallholders in tropical countries, primarily due to lack or high cost, or both, of equipment for harvesting and conservation and production of cultivated forage being often limited due to lack of available land. Many agricultural, agro-industrial and fishery by-products have potential as animal feeds. Most farmers in developing countries rely for their food security on the cultivation of cereals, root crops and high-value crops such as fruits and vegetables, which understandably take priority in the allocation of land. Fruit, vegetables and root crops are increasingly integrated in the farming system and play a key role as staples in the human diet in most developing countries.

Silage is the green material produced by controlled anaerobic fermentation of the green succulent fodder crop retaining its moisture content. The process of preparing silage is known as Ensiling and the pit in which silage is prepared is called silo.

Crops suitable for silage making
The fundamental behind the conservation of fodder as silage is the acidic condition, which is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of carbohydrates rich fodder. Thus the necessity of the fodder crop being used for silage preparation is the presence of high amount of fermentable carbohydrates and the natural carbohydrate rich crops are the cereal crops like maize, jowar or bajra and grasses or their combination in 3:1 with leguminous crops. Otherwise high moisture leguminous crop after wilting in combination of molasses may be 
used.

Successful preservation of high-moisture forage and other crops depends upon the controlling the activities of microbes, particularly bacteria. Ensiling generally controls microbial activity by a combination of an anaerobic environment and a natural fermentation of sugars by lactic acid bacteria on the crop. The silage microflora plays a key role in the successful outcome of the conservation process. Therefore, it is important to understand both the microorganisms that are present on the crop at ensiling and how ensiling preserves the crop, inhibiting detrimental microorganisms. The crop at ensiling contains both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms and a range of both bacteria and fungi that affect silage quality.

Estimation of silage quality parameters: Process of making silage is called ensiling. The green fodder harvested at a proper stage is stored, packed and compressed in silo and it is then tightly covered to prevent the contact with air. Thus, the forage is preserved by controlled microbial anaerobic fermentation in a silo with minimum loss of nutrients for use as a succulent fodder during scarcity (lean) period. This form of preserved fodder is known as silage. Silage is prepared by obtaining enough acid content in ensiled feed which inhibit the microbial fermentation thereby preserving the green fodder. Following are
points to ponder:
1. Maize, sorghum, bajra crops having thick solid stems and rich in soluble carbohydrates, are best for silage preparation. Silage can also be prepared from oats, berseem etcetera, after wilting to 35 – 40 % dry matter.
2. Dry matter content in fodder crop for ensiling should be between 30 – 40 % (average 35 %) and should have sufficient soluble sugars for acid production during fermentation.
3. The crop is harvested in bloom stage, which is best for silage preparation.
4. If the crop is deficient in soluble carbohydrates, (for example, legumes), then a sugar industry by – product is added.
5. Silage having acidic flavour and pH 3.5 to 4.2 is considered to be excellent.
6. The crop should be properly trampled / pressed to remove the air out of silo.
7. The crop is chopped into small pieces for better microbial action due to increased surface are and sufficient acid production.