eChapters

In its original concept, vaccination aims to mimic the development of naturally acquired immunity by inoculation of nonpathogenic but still immunogenic components of the pathogen in question, or closely related organisms. The term “vaccine” (from the Latin term “vacca,” meaning cow) was first coined by Edward Jenner to describe the inoculation of humans with the cowpox virus to confer protection against the related human smallpox virus and illustrates the close relationship between human and animal infectious disease sciences. The famous proverb saying ‘Prevention is better than cure’ implies perfectly to the vaccines. Vaccines have proven to be boon for animals which can be regard a potential weapons against infectious diseases caused mainly by bacteria and viruses. The major aims of veterinary vaccines are to improve the health and welfare of companion animals, increase production of livestock in a cost-effective manner, and prevent animal-to-human transmission from both domestic animals and wildlife. Vaccines have long been used to combat infectious disease; however the last decade has witnessed a revolution in the approach to vaccine design and development. Apart from improving animal health and productivity, veterinary vaccines have a significant impact on public health through reductions in the use of veterinary pharmaceuticals and hormones and their residues in the human food chain.

Vaginal prolapse in cow is a condition in which there is protrusion of whole or part of vagina including sometimes the part of cervix through the vulva. It occurs in cow mostly during last 2-3 months of gestation. It occurs due to excess secretion of estrogen from placenta, hypocalcaemia, inadequate exercise, bulky food like roughages etc. Sometimes occurs in non pregnant cows due to cystic ovaries, severe straining due to vaginal irritation etc.

This chapter introduces value addition as a means of converting eggs from a commodity into convenient, shelf-stable or specialized food products. It covers ready-to-eat eggs, hard-cooked eggs, pickled and marinated eggs, egg-based snacks, specialty products, emulsified products and mayonnaise. Region-specific and ethnic egg products of India are also discussed. The chapter introduces product development, sensory evaluation, packaging and retort processing. It emphasizes the commercial potential of value-added products while recognizing the associated requirements for food safety, processing control, market acceptance and appropriate packaging.

Introduction

Incidence of ectoparasitism is on rise in the livestock population, impeding its production and performance. Those areas which were free of ectoparasites are now under great parasite load because of changing climatic conditions and global warming. Global warming has resulted in vectors shifting their habitats to temperate regions also. Ectoparasites are not only causing irritation to livestock by blood sucking and associated pruritus, they are serving as vectors for a variety of haemoprotozoan and rickettsiae leading to far-flung complications. Major ectoparasites infesting ruminants are ticks, lice, fleas and flies. Though ticks and flies are proclaimed as notorious for transmission of haemoprotozoans, now a days evidences are on rise reporting the role of fleas and lice as vectors for various haemoprotozoan and viral diseases. The need of the hour is to explore more and more ectoparasites to identify their vector potential and their effective control measures. While addressing the ectoparasitism in livestock, another major problem arises with their control. Most ectoparasitism is of seasonal nature at least in temperate areas, while it is a round the year phenomenon in tropics. Only very few compounds are available as ectoparasiticides and used by clinicians, and has resulted in onset of resistance among ectoparasites. New compounds need to be developed and marketed to counter this and at the same time it should be environment friendly also. Lest their rising use can lead to eradication of friendly fauna which can be more detrimental to the ecosystem. Now a days researches are focusing on the development of integrated tick/vector control measures which are making use of minimal chemical compounds and utilizing the synergistic application of farming techniques/practices and cultivating plants of acaricidal properties. In this era of pandemic, zoonotic nature of various haemoprotozoan/rickettsiae affecting livestock is also of concern to the mankind. So, they need to be addressed at the earliest considering their impact. The susceptibility to ectoparasitism varies from animal to animal.

Introduction

Earthworms have been exists on the earth from over 20 million years. Decomposition of organic material that may be plant or animal origin by earthworms is called vermicompost. The earthworm is a natural resource of fertility of soil. Earthworm is lives in the soil. They feed on decaying organic material. After digestion, the undigested material moves through the alimentary canal of the earthworm; and a thin layer of oil is deposited on the castings. This layer corrodes over a period of 2 months. Although, the plant nutrients are immediately available, they are slowly released to last longer period. The digestive process in the alimentary canal of the earthworm can transforms organic wastes to natural fertilizer. Vermicompost is an odorless, clean, organic material containing adequate quantities of N, P, K and several micronutrients essential for plant growth. Vermicompost is an ideal nutrient source for organic farming. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both industrial and domestic scenery because as compared with conventional composting, it provides a way to treat organic wastes more quickly. It generates a product which has a lower salinity levels, and therefore more beneficial to plant mediums. Vermicompost is nutrient rich organic fertilizers which also contain water soluble nutrients and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy to absorb for plants. Worm castings are nothing but organic fertilizers because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms. Plants need least efforts to obtain these nutrients from vermicompost. The worm digestive system creates environment that allow certain species of microbes to flourish to help for creating the “living soil environments for plants”.

The chemical changes in organic wastes undergo include deodorizing and neutralizing. The pH of the casting is 7 (neutral) and the casting is odorless. The worm casting contains bacteria, so microbial activity is promoted. Excellent quality of compost can be produced in ambient temperature condition in a short period of time by using proper species of earthworm. The earthworms promote faster decomposition of organic material as compared to compost pits without earthworms.

Introduction

After introduction  of Green Revolution and White  Revolution in our country, India had high growth in food and milk production but farmers of our country had  applying more chemical fertilizers, insecticides  pesticides, weedicides and various medicines  in injudicious way  to increase grain, vegetable, fruit, flower, milk, meat and egg production . Due to this reason soil fertilely and soil health is deteriorating continuously. The soil  of food bowl states of our country viz. Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and plain area of Uttarakhand deficient in organic matter, macro and micro and trace elements. Now soil became non living due to death of earthworms and beneficial micro organism. Farmers are using mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in crop production. However there are 15 essential plant nutrition’s for growing of crops. Due to more application of chemical fertilizers in crop production these days’ farmers are not properly using organic, green and compost manures in crop husbandry. Soil fertility and ground water level has been declined very fast by adopting intensive farming.

Histology

Cell: Structural and functional unit of an organism

M. Schleiden & Theodor Schwan – proposed cell theory

- All living being made up of cell

Tissue: Group of cell and their extracellular product organized to perform a particular function

M. Malpighii – Father of histology

Administration

Term Administration is derived from a Latin word Administaire which means to serve. The word administration is also derived from the English word administracioun, which is in turn is derived from the French word administration, which itself has its root from the Latin word administratio, which means ad (to) and ministratio (give service). The term administration is a more general and comprehensive connotation and may be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. Administration is a distinct skill and directed towards the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a group of individuals towards some common goal.

Administration is the art of guiding, coordinating and integrating policies established for any organizational unit to effectively and efficiently achieve the purpose of the organization.

1665 Robert Hooke had successfully invented the microscope. Because of this discovery, Robert Hooke was the first one to have a close look of a cell appears to be. His description of these cells was published in Micrographia. However, the cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells.

1674 Anton van Leeuwenhoek witnessed a live cell (plant) under a microscope.

1775 Antoine Lavoisier first proposed a mechanism for photosynthesis, a process wherein plants plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Lavoisier was also the first to investigate cell respiration in animals.

1777-83 Chemistry became dominated by the phlogiston theory, or the hypothetical principle of fire wherein all the combustible material was part composed. In this principle, burning (oxidation) was caused by liberating phlogiston, with ash as the dephlogistigated substance.

1836 The proponent of the cell theory in Biology, Theodore Schwann, proposed that the process of fermentation is solely limited to living yeast cells in 1836. Liebig did not agree to this and instead, he proposed another alternative theory of fermentation.

1856 Louis Pasteur opposed Liebig’s chemical theory. In his experiment, he showed that fermentation depends highly on the physiological functions that occur in bacteria and in living yeast cells. This work of Pasteur in 1856 received general recognition.

1860s The view on the chemistry of life highly different from the chemistry of nonliving things. During this period, the view is that the gelatinous and homogenous form of matter in organisms or more commonly known as the protoplasm carries out all the intracellular processes. These include respiration, biosynthesis of molecules, and the breakdown of matter.

Embry Transfer Technology (ETT)

Definition: The process of removing one or more embryos from the reproductive tract of a donor female and transferring them to one or more recipient females.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease

Loeffler and Frosch in 1897. Apthovirus of Picornaviridae. Strain O, A, C, Asia-1, SAT-1, 2, 3.

Cattle as Indicator host, Pig as amplifier, Sheep as maintenance host.

Musculature of heart in calves will have striped appearance termed as TIGER HEART.

Panting is common feature or sequel following FMD due to disturb endocrine function.

Preferred cell line for virus isolation in BHK-21.

Our general environment is loaded with tiny invisible living things that influence us consistently. Microbiology is a specialized area of science that deals with living things typicallytoo little to be seen without magnification. Suchmicroscopic life forms are collectively referred to as microorganisms. Microbial kingdom incorporates the study of bacteria, rickettsiae, viruses, fungi, algae and protozo a. Virology the study of viruses, mycology study of fungi and protozoology deals with protozoa.Credit for prologue to microbial world goes to ‘Antony van Leeuwenhoek’ and to vistas of microbial activities to ‘Louis Pasteur’ and ‘Robert Koch’. This period is reffered as the “Golden Era” of microbiology on account of the significant discoveries viz: microbial fermentations, discovery of various disease-causing agents, microbes’ cultivations, differences in metabolic activities, development of attenuated strains and their use as immunoprophylactic agents. The techniques used to study bacteria and different microorganisms embody direct microscopic examination, cultivation, biochemical tests, animal inoculation, serological reactivity and recent molecular biological techniques.Definitive evidence for the cause of a given infection is established by Koch that are still used to this day to definitively prove that a microorganism causes a particular disease. Koch’s four postulates are:

Veterinary Nuclear Medicine (VNM)

Veterinary Nuclear Medicine (VNM) is a specialized field that uses radioisotopes to detect, diagnose, and treat diseases. Gamma scintigraphy involves injecting radioactive tracer pharmaceuticals into the animal’s body and imaging them as they move through the body using a gamma radiation-sensitive camera. This technique provides a 2D or 3D image of the whole body or a specific organ, allowing for the estimation of the quantitative distribution within the region of interest (ROI). Advancements in gamma scintigraphy have allowed for the acquisition of information about both static and dynamic high-resolution images, such as heart wall motion, blood flow, and myocardial perfusion. Unlike other diagnostic modalities viz X-rays, ultrasonography, and CT; gamma scintigraphy offers functional information of specific organs. The most commonly used gamma radiation-emitting isotope is 99m-Technetium (99mTc), which emits a gamma energy of 98% 140-keV photon with only 10% internal conversion. Other radionuclides used in veterinary nuclear medicine facilities include iodine (123I and 131I), Gallium (67Ga), and Thallium (201Ti).

Parasite- The word parasite is derived from the Greek. Para- beside and sitos- food. Parasites are those living organism which reside on or inside the body of some other species of living organism.

Host- Those organisms which provide food shelter and conducive environment to parasite for their growth, development and reproduction. e.g. Tape worm in small intestine of man and animals.

Disease = dis + aise (see + ease) old French word

Transmission- Movement of biological agents (Virus, Bacteria, Rickettsial, Fungi & Parasites) from one place to another place via vector or vehicle/ tools

Vector- Latin word- bearer

Vector is a living organism (usually an arthropod) which transfers infective forms of a parasite from one host to the other.

Pathology is derived from Greek word (Pathos=disease + logos=study). It is study of structure and function of body in disease.

Veterinary Pathology is the study of anatomical, chemical and physiological alterations in comparison to normal due to disease in animals. Pathology has responsibility to forms a vital bridge between preclinical sciences (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry) and clinical branches of medicine and surgery.

General Pathology deals with the basic alterations of tissues as a result of disease. e.g. fatty changes, thrombosis, amyloidosis, embolism, necrosis etc.

Systemic Pathology is related to the alterations in tissues/organs of a particular system. e.g. respiratory system, genital system etc.

Special Pathology is the application of the basic reactions of gene general pathology to various specific diseases.

Gross or Macroscopic Pathology is the examination of tissue without the help of a microscope.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is branch of pharmacology that deals with study of chemical substance intended to kills or inhibits the growth of invading microorganism or foreign cell without harm to host cells. Paul Ehrlich coined the term chemotherapy and is known as father of chemotherapy. Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk discovered sulphonamide (sulfonamidochrysoidine). First commercially available sulphonamide marketed in the form of Prontosil dye, for which he received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. SelmanAbraham Waksman discover streptomycin and several other antibiotics from soil actinomycetes and actinomycetes is called treasurer house of antibiotics.

α-lactam antibiotics- includes penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobectum and beta-lactamase inhibitors. It inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis due to inhibition of transpeptidation reaction thus inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis. Penicillins contain 6-animopenicillanic acid (((lactam ring + thiazolidine ring) eg. natural penicillins, beta-lactamase-resistant agents, aminopenicillins, carboxypenicillins, and ureidopenicillins. Discovery of penicillin was done by Alexender fleming from penicillium mold in 1928 from Penicillium notatum. Now a day’s Penicillium chrysogenum mold is a major source of penicillin production. Benzathine penicillin G is a repository salt of penicillin. Probenicid competitively inhibit renal tubular secretion of penicillin and increase the half- life of penicillin. Procaine penicillin G should not administer by i.v. route due to adversely affect the cardiac conducting system. Beta-lactamses inhibitors are calvulenic acid (Streptomyces clavuligerus), salbactum, tazobactam. They are called suicidal /progressive inhibitors. Main adverse effect associate with penicillin is immediate type of hypersensitivity reaction due to Antigen+ IgE antibody reaction.

Veterinary physiology deals with the study of normal functions of animal systems. It includes the study of how animals work and the physical and chemical processes that occur within animals. The examples of various biological processes in animals include gas exchange, blood and circulation, osmoregulation, digestion, nervous and muscle systems, respiration, growth, reproduction, endocrine function and how animals behave and function in different environmental conditions. This also includes the possible manipulation of the reproductive processes by means of hormone manipulation techniques for more efficient livestock and poultry production.

Zoonoses

Zoonoses are those diseases and infections which are transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans under natural conditions. The emergence of a pathogen into a new host species is called disease invasion or “disease emergence”.

Anthrax is a notifiable disease and primarily occurs in herbivores but it is a type of bio-terrorism agent and called as malignant pustule, malignant edema, woolsorters disease, ragpickers disease, maladi charbon, splenic fever etc. Causative agent is Bacillus anthracis contains vegetative spore and lethal dose is 2,500 to 55,000 spores.

Brucellosis is one of the world’s most widespread zoonoses caused by the genus Brucella. In human it is called Malta fever, Undulant fever, Mediterranean fever, Rock Fever of Gibraltar and Gastric Fever while in animals it is called Bang’s disease, Enzootic abortion, Epizootic abortion, Slinking of calves, Ram epididymitis and Contagious abortion etc. it is also called occupational disease.

Leptospirosis is a disease of animal sand humanbeings caused by genus Leptospira and called as Weil’s syndrome, Canicola fever, Canefield fever, 7-day fever, Rat Catcher’s Yellows, Autumn fever, black jaundice). Fletcher’s EMJH media is used to culture the organism.

Veterinary surgery: The surgery which is practiced on animals. It deals with the treatment of deformities, injuries, or disease conditions by manipulation with the hands. The term “Surgery” is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia (Cheir – Hand, Ergon – work).

The papyri of Egypt contained information on treatment of fractures and superficial wounds.

In Vedic era, Salihotra and Palakapya were the greatest ancient Indian veterinarians. Salihotra treated horses and Palakaya elephants.

“Susruta Samhita’ is the earliest known work dealing with the medical science especially surgery.

Hobday wrote first comprehensive text on surgical diseases of the dog and cat.

The theory and practice of asepsis was introduced by Joseph Lister.

W.S. Halsted introduced the principles of surgery and use of rubber gloves.

Vices of poultry are undesirable behavioural pattern manifested by the bird in the flock and spreads fast among the members resulting in financial losses.

Types of Vices

Pecking

Cannibalism

Egg eating