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Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. These classes of biomolecules come together to create the fundamental building blocks that shape and govern the structure and functionality of living cells. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Wilhem Bloor in 1943. Lipids are heterogeneous groups of substances that are insoluble in polar (water) and soluble in non-polar (ether, benzene, and chloroform) solvents. Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and their derivatives. Lipids play a crucial role in both the plant and animal domains. They are widely distributed in plants, but lipids are primarily stored in animal adipose tissues.

Classification of lipids

Lipids are classified into four different groups, as shown below:

1. Simple lipids

2. Complex lipids

3. Derived lipids and

4. Miscellaneous lipids

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

General Terminologies in Livestock Production

The world’s largest population of milch cattle lives in India. In 2020, there were almost 906 million tones of milk produced worldwide, with India being the top producer with a 22 percent share. Annual Growth Rate of milk production in 2019-20 in India was 5.69 per cent. Highest growth rate in milk production was found to be 14.31 per cent in Karnataka. In 2021, the Indian dairy market had a value of INR 13,174 billion.

Meat is considered as well balanced diet because it is good source of macro and micro nutrients.

Macronutrients-required in large quantity in body i.e proteins, fat and carbohydrates.

Micronutrients-required in lesser quantity by human body i.e vitamins, minerals and fibers.

Organ meat like liver is a good source of glycogen, viatm-A, B1 and nicotinic acid.

Fresh meat is unprocessed.

Raw meat is a fresh meat undergone chilling and freezing.

Refrigeration and rapid cooling can delay the onset of rigor mortis

ABSTRACT

The Indian false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra detects and captures prey (e.g. frogs) mainly by listening to the rustling sounds that are created when the prey is on ground. In addition, echolocation and vision are also involved. Mothers of M. lyra take meticulous care of their young. At the age of about seven weeks, juveniles exhibit gleaning flights. Among eight mother-young pairs, four young (group A) began to capture frogs at the age of 62 days

Lymph vessels arise from mesoderm by vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in common with the arteries and veins. Initially six primary lymph sacs develop in the late embryonic period. They are paired jugular sacs lateral to the internal jugular veins, a single retroperitoneal sac developing close to the root of the mesentry, the cisterna chyli dorsal to the retroperitoneal sac and a pair of iliac sacs at the junction of the iliac veins.

Lymphatic vessels draining the head, neck and fore limbs arise from jugular sacs. Drainage of lymph from the pelvic region and hind limbs is through the iliac sacs, while the retroperitoneal sac and cisterna chyli drain the viscera. At a later stage of lymphatic development, the lymph sacs become interconnected by a series of lymphatic vessels.The plexus between the jugular sacs and the cisterna chyli gives rise to the thoracic duct which opens into the jugular veins.

lymphatic organs : The lymphatic organs are fully developed and functional before birth. Immunocompetent cells can be detected in most lymphatic organs by the end of the second trimester of gestation.

lymphnodes : The lymphnodes are formed by the partitioning of small lymph vessels or sacs. Therefore, lymphnodes are usually found in related groups or in chains along the course of a lymph vessel. The partitioning is initiated by the ingrowth of mesenchymal processes into the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme forms a network of lymph sinusoids that communicate with the lumen of the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme also forms a reticular fiber frame work that outlines and supports the sinusoidal network. At this time a blood vessel enters the developing lymphnode. The point of entrance establishes the location of the hilus. At the periphery of the node the mesenchyme condenses to form a capsule. The mammalian lymphnodes consists of cortical and medullary regions. The cortical parenchyma contains lymphnodules, while the central medullary region contains anastomosing cords of lymphoid tissue. The structure of the porcine lymphnode differs from other domestic animals in that the lymphnodules are centrally located with the cords at the periphery. The flow of lymph in the porcine lymphnode is in the opposite direction to that in other domestic animals, with lymph entering at the hilus and leaving from the cortex.

The lymphatic system is a part of circulatory system and a vital part of the body’s immune system. It is comprised of lymph vessels, lymph ducts, and lymph nodes that move the lymph from tissues to the blood stream and the organs such as the spleen, thymus and bone marrow that produce the lymphocytes and white blood cells. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma. During circulation through the body, the blood reaches to the capillaries at the interstitial spaces. The plasma of the blood is filtered through the capillary wall. The fresh oxygen along with nutrients, hormones and other necessary fluid matters from this plasma are released in to the interstitial fluid and about 85 per cent of the plasma along with the carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes, return into the circulation through the capillary walls. The remaining 15 per cent of the plasma along with the debris of other waste products and the lymphocytes constitutes the lymph which is returned to the circulation through an accessory route of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes constituting the lymphatic system.

Lymph Vessels: The lymph vessels start as finger-like blind ending thin walled lymph capillaries in the interstitial connective tissue. These capillaries form a network and drain into the thicker walled collecting lymph vessels, lymph ducts and lymphatic trunks. Finally the larger lymph trunks and ducts empty their content the lymph into the cranial vena cava at the thoracic inlet. The lymph vessels contain numerous valves with one or two leaflets preventing the back flow of lymph through the lymph vessels. During its course in a centripetal direction through the lymph vessel, the lymph of each lymph vessel has to pass through at least one lymph node prior to its entry into the blood circulation. As a result there lies a chain of lymph nodes on the pathway of lymph vessels in the body.

The lymph from the fore limb is collected and carried into the circulation through two main lymph nodes, the prescapular and the axillary lymph nodes. There may be two more lymph nodes in fore limb but those are inconsistent and only occasionally found in ox. These include the accessory axillary lymph node and infraspinous lymph nodes and their afferents are mostly from the thoracic wall.

The lymphatics of the head and neck region is comprised of the lymph nodes and the lymph ducts. The lymph nodes of the head are the parotid, pterygoid, mandibular, the lateral and medial retropharyngeal, and the rostral and caudal hyoid. The lymph nodes in the cervical region are the superficial and accessory superficial, cranial, middle and caudal deep cervical and the costocervical and subrhomboidal lymph nodes. The lymph from these lymph nodes is finally collected and carried to the common jugular vein by the tracheal and right lymphatic ducts.

Lymph nodes of head

Parotid lymph node

The parotid lymph node is large and elongated gland usually single but sometimes two small glands connected closely with each other by a fibrous tissue lying on the upper part of the lateral surface in the caudal half of the masseter muscle. It is ventral to the temporomandibular joint, partly or completely covered by the dorsal part of the parotid salivary gland and is situated lateral to the maxillary vessels and nerve. The afferent lymph vessels are received to this gland (node) from the muscles of head, ocular and auricular muscles, the parotid salivary gland, the gums, lips, appendages of the eye, ear, lacrimal gland, and from the bones of the head such as frontal, malar, nasal, maxilla, incisive, turbinate, mandible etc. The afferent from the parotid lymph node joins the tracheal duct of the corresponding side.

The lymphatics of hind limb is comprised of four lymph nodes namely the deep inguinal, epigastric, coxal and popliteal lymph nodes and the afferents and efferent ducts joining and leaving these lymph nodes.

Deep inguinal lymph node

The deep inguinal lymph node is located in the region of deep femoral artery near the origin of the caudal epigastric and the pudic branches from it. The lymph node receives afferents from the muscles in the prepubic and the thigh regions. The efferent vessel from this lymph node joins and opens in the medial iliac lymph node.

Epigastric lymph node

The epigastric lymph node is inconstant. When present, it is located on the course of the caudal epigastric artery near the pubis on the medial surface of the rectus abdominis muscle. The afferents for this lymph node are received from the abdominal muscles and the peritoneum in the vicinity. The efferent vessel of this lymph node joins the medial iliac lymph node.

The lymph nodes of the abdomen and pelvis are in two major divisions, lymph nodes of the wall of the abdomen and pelvis and those of the viscera of abdomen and pelvis. The lymph from all the lymph nodes is collected by different lymph ducts which carry and pour their contents (lymph) in the cisterna chyli near the hiatus aorticus on the abdominal surface of the diaphragm.

Lymph nodes of the wall of abdomen and pelvis

The lumbar aortic lymph nodes are a chain of small lymph nodes situated along the caudal part of the abdominal aorta. These lymph nodes receive afferents from the peritoneum, sublumbar, spinal and abdominal muscles and the lumbar vertebrae. The efferents from these lymph nodes join each other and form two lumbar trunks which later on unite in a single lumbar lymphatic trunk that opens into the cisterna chyli.

The medial iliac lymph nodes are situated near the origins of the deep circumflex iliac and the internal external iliac arteries. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the internal iliac, tuberal, gluteal coxal, lateral iliac, subiliac, superficial inguinal and popliteal lymph nodes. The efferents from these lymph nodes either form a lumbar trunk or join any of the lumbar aortic lymph nodes.

The lymphatics of the thoracic region are comprised of large number of lymph nodes which are arranged in different groups like the aortic, sternal, mediastinal and bronchial. The efferent ducts from these lymph nodes ultimately join the thoracic duct which carries lymph from all over the body except the head neck and fore limb to open in the cranial venacava.

Thoracic aortic and sternal lymph nodes

The lymphatics of the thoracic and sternal region is comprised of thoracic aortic, intercostal, cranial and caudal sternal, and the xiphoid lymph nodes and the thoracic duct which conducts the lymph collected from most of the parts of the body except the head, neck and fore limbs.

The thoracic aortic lymph nodes are located along the dorsolateral border of the aorta, ventral to the sympathetic trunk. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the muscles of thoracic wall, diaphragm, pleural and pericardial sacs and the intercostal lymph nodes. The efferents from the thoracic aortic lymph nodes are connected to the thoracic duct either directly or through other lymph nodes of the thoracic cavity.

Matching: The matching is a technique that is used to form two groups of subjects to set up an experiment–control study to test the effectiveness of a treatment. From a pool of subjects, two subjects with identical predetermined attributes, characteristics or conditions are matched and then randomly placed in either the experimental or control group.

Macroeconomic policy : Top-down policy by government and central banks, usually intended to maximise growth while keeping down inflation and unempoyment. The main instruments of macroeconomic policy are changes in the rate of interest and money supply, known as monetary policy, and changes in taxation and public spending, known as fiscal policy. The fact that unemployment and inflation often rise sharply, and that growth often slows or gdp falls, may be evidence of poorly executed macroeconomic policy. However, business cycles may simply be an unavoidable fact of economic life that macroeconomic policy, however well conducted, can never be sure of conquering.

Macroeconomics : The big picture analysing economy-wide phenomena such as growth, inflation and unemployment. Contrast with microeconomics, the study of the behaviour of individual markets, workers, households and firms. Although economists generally separate themselves into distinct macro and micro camps, macroeconomic phenomena are the product of all the microeconomic activity in an economy. The precise relationship between macro and micro is not particularly well understood, which has often made it difficult for a government to deliver well-run macroeconomic policy.

Managed Care : Managed care is a livestock health care plan that integrates the financing and delivery of livestock health care services by using arrangements with selected health care providers to provide services for covered individuals. Plans are generally financed using capitation fees. There are significant financial incentives for members of the plan to use the health care providers associated with the plan. The plan includes formal programs for quality assurance and utilization review.

Cells Contain 4 Major Types of Giant Molecules (Macromolecules, Polymers)

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

BIOLOGICAL POLYMERS ARE MADE FROM ABOUT 60 SMALL BUILDING BLOCKS

Cells contain thousands of types of giant molecules (macromolecules, polymers)

Polymers are macromolecules made from a single building block molecule Most of the macromolecules are made from about 60 types of small building block molecules

Most macromolecules are linear: building blocks linked head to tail- a few have branches (some polysaccharides)

This is what you would get if you heated cells in hydrochloric acid overnight at 110 degrees C:

Cell growth and cell passage : Different types of cells have different growth requirements but in all cases the surrounding medium must supply all the essential nutrients. The temperature, pH, osmolarity and humidity must be kept within limits. Again, toxic or inhibitory substances must not be allowed to accumulate. Serum, a source of macromolecular growth factors, is essential to the growth of many cell types. Anchorage dependent cells require nontoxic or biologically inert glass or plastic surface for attachment.

The great vessels that leave and enter the chambers of the heart include the Aorta, the Pulmonary Artery and the Pulmonary Veins.

Aorta

The Aorta is the main systemic arterial trunk. It begins as ascending aorta at the base of the left ventricle, passes craniad and dorsad between the pulmonary artery on the left and the right atrium on the right and then turns caudad inclining slightly to the left, thus describing a curve called the aortic arch with its convexity directed upward and forward and the concavity facing downward and backward. From here it proceeds caudad on the ventrolateral surface of the thoracic vertebrae and the longus colli muscle as the descending aorta. At its origin from the base of left ventricle, the caliber of the aorta is greatest forming the bulbus aorta and here it presents three dilatations called the aortic sinuses. As the descending aorta reaches the level of the seventh thoracic vertebra it continues behind as thoracic aorta running through the middle and caudal mediastinum between the left and right lungs. The thoracic aorta first lies to the left of the median plane and then gradually inclines inwards medially and becomes median in position when it reaches to the diaphragm. It then passes through the hiatus aorticus of the diaphragm and enter the abdominal cavity as abdominal aorta. From here it passes caudad below the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and the psoas major muscle. After reaching at the level of the sixth lumbar vertebra, the abdominal aorta terminates in the iliac quadrification by dividing into two external and two internal iliac arteries.

Indifferent stage: Primordia are present for both sexes (gonads and mesonephric and paramesonephric ducts), although genetic sex is determined at fertilization.

Gonads : are structuarally indistinguishable prospective testis and ovaries. The first sign of gonadal development is a swelling called the gonadal ridge on the medial side of the middle part of the mesonephros. It enlarges due to arrival of primary germ cells. Cells of mesonephric tubules invade the ridge to form clusters and besides surround germ cells resulting in gonadal cords.

The primordial germ cells of these gonads arise from the endodermal cells of the yolk sac. These migrate to the gonadal ridge through the dorsal mesentry. Migration of primordial germ cells from the yolk sac endoderm into the gonadal ridges initiates testicular (if SRY gene is present) or ovarian development. The primordial germ cells form the sex cells, called gonadal blastema. The somatic blastema (non-germ cell) forms the other parenchymal elements of the gonads. The germ cells are capable of amoeboid-like movement.

The male genital organs (Fig. 4-6 C) comprise the two testicles (where the male gametes are produced) with their coverings and appendages; the epididymis (which stores and transports the gametes); the ductus deferens (the ducts of the testicles); the seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands (accessory sex glands); the urethra and the penis (the organ of copulation).

Testicles (Testes)

The testicles are the essential male gonads. They produce male gametes, the spermatozoa and the endocrine secretion which influences the development and maintainance of masculine characteristics. The testicles are paired compound tubular glands situated in the scrotum below the inguinal canals suspended by spermatic cords. Each testicle is about 15 cm long and about 6.5 to 7.5 cm in diameter. Their long axis is vertical. The left testicle is more often slightly larger and lower in position than the right testicle. In such conditions the scrotum appears asymmetrical. Each testicle is slightly compressed from side to side and presents two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The lateral surface is convex and smooth and is covered by the tunica vaginalis propria. The medial surface is slightly flattened due to its contact with the septum scroti. The cranial border is convex and it is free and hence is called the free border. The caudal border is nearly straight and is attached to the epididymis and hence is called the attached border or the epididymal border. The dorsal and ventral extremities are blunt and rounded.

Structure: The gland is compound tubular in structure. It is covered externally by peritoneum, the tunica vaginalis propria which is very closely attached to the underlined tissue. Underneath the peritoneum is the capsule of the testicle called the tunica albuginea because of its white colour. Numerous trabeculae extend from the capsule into the organ forming the supporting tissue for the seminiferous tubules and providing a pathway for vessels. The axial strand of connective tissue extending almost the entire length of the gland is the mediastinum testes. Radiating from the mediastinum are the lobes of yellowish