eChapters

Lactation is the process of milk secretion by the mammary gland. Milk is one of the most fascinating biological fluid whose role as a nearly complete food in sustaining life processes is well known. Milk provides an essential and highly digestible form of nutrients for the mammalian young during the critical period after birth. Milk also forms the first meal of the mammalian youngs.

Most mammals produce milk according to the requirements for their young one’s. However, man for centuries have selectively bred several animals, so that they produce milk, far in excess of the requirements of their youngs. The excess milk is harvested by man for his own and his children’s nurture. The physiology of the mammary gland or the mechanism of milk secretion forms an important part of the man’s strategy to manipulate it to its own advantage. Milk forms the raw material for the multi million dollar dairy industry all over the world. In India, dairying is the second largest agriculture based industry.

The most important animal domesticated by man for production of milk is undoubtedly the cow. Buffalo as a milk producer is important only in Asia & parts of Africa. In India its importance is as much or even more as compared to the cow in milk production ability. The other important milk producing animals are goat, sheep, camel, yak, and mithun.

The ability to produce milk is dependent on several factors including breed, season, feed etc. Majority of our animals do not conform to any descript type, some 20 per cent of them belong to 26 cattle breeds and 7 buffalo breeds. The major milk producing breed of buffaloes are Murrah and Nili Ravi. The season affects the milk producing ability of domestic animals. In Northern India, cow’s milk production is highest during March and lowest during September. However, the buffalo milk production is highest during October and lowest during June.

General Terminologies in Livestock Production

Meat is considered as well balanced diet because it is good source of macro and micro nutrients.

Macronutrients-required in large quantity in body i.e proteins, fat and carbohydrates.

Micronutrients-required in lesser quantity by human body i.e vitamins, minerals and fibers.

Organ meat like liver is a good source of glycogen, viatm-A, B1 and nicotinic acid.

Fresh meat is unprocessed.

Raw meat is a fresh meat undergone chilling and freezing.

Refrigeration and rapid cooling can delay the onset of rigor mortis

A neurological examination is an advanced and specialized clinical examination that is performed when there is suspicion of potential nervous system involvement. Before performing neurological examination a detailed history is essential. Neurological examination along with history not only helps in confirming whether the neurological problem is of primary or secondary origin but also aids in accurately identifying the location of the lesion. Common Terminology used in Neurology The following terms are commonly used in neurology. For a better understanding, common neurological terms with their definition are given below: •     Ataxia - An abnormal gait marked by lack of coordination, but without spasticity, weakness, or involuntary movements. Ataxia results from damage to the proprioceptive pathways, the vestibular system, or the cerebellum.

Veterinary surgery: The surgery which is practiced on animals. It deals with the treatment of deformities, injuries, or disease conditions by manipulation with the hands. The term “Surgery” is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia (Cheir – Hand, Ergon – work).

The papyri of Egypt contained information on treatment of fractures and superficial wounds.

In Vedic era, Salihotra and Palakapya were the greatest ancient Indian veterinarians. Salihotra treated horses and Palakaya elephants.

“Susruta Samhita’ is the earliest known work dealing with the medical science especially surgery.

Hobday wrote first comprehensive text on surgical diseases of the dog and cat.

The theory and practice of asepsis was introduced by Joseph Lister.

W.S. Halsted introduced the principles of surgery and use of rubber gloves.

A variety of glassware like burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, flasks, separating funnel etc. are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. All of these need to be used and handled correctly, otherwise the chances of experimental error and damage to the glassware increase significantly. Being made of glass, they need special care while washing and using in experiments because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in breakage of the apparatus. With this precautionary note, let us discuss about some of the specific glassware used in the laboratories.

Burette

Burette is a long graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end for delivering a known/desired volume of a liquid, especially in titration experiments. It contains a stopcock at the lower end and a tapered capillary tube as the stopcock’s outlet. The flow rate of liquid from the tub stopcock’s outlet can be controlled with the help of stopcock valve. Burette is used for measuring the volume of a solution/chemical added in a quantitative (titrimetric) estimation experiment.

Procedure of using a Burette

The burette reading must be noted before and after delivering the chemical/ solution from the burette. The difference in these two readings is the volume of the chemical/solution released out of the burette. The solution should be released slowly/drop-by-drop to avoid any experimental error/mistake. If the solution/chemical is allowed to pour out too fast, the wall of the burette will not drain properly and some liquid may remain sticking to the surface of the walls. Moreover, excessive amount of chemical may be released/dropped during the experiment, particularly during the titration experiment wherein we need to know the exact amount of acid/base needed to get neutralization point. Thus, any minor mistake may lead to get a faulty reading. The measuring capacity of a burette usually used in a laboratory is 50 mL.

Introduction

Lipids (dietary or body reserve) serves as the major source of energy for the body at the time of carbohydrate depletion. Triacyl glycerol (TG) forms the major part of lipids alongwith phospholipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. The different forms of lipids are utilised by the body for generation of energy in the form of ATP. In addition, it serves as the source of essential fattyacids and vitamins for different metabolic purpose.

Dietary triacylglycerols (TG) are digested by lipase group of enzymes (lingual, gastric, pancreatic and intestinal) secreted by the digestive tract into free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols. The 2-monoacylglycerols are either absorbed as such or hydrolysed into glycerol and fatty acids which are then absorbed independently. The glycerol and fatty acids are distributed to different tissues through circulation and utilised in the following ways

i. Storage in fat cells of adipose tissue in the form of triacylglycerols.

ii. Oxidised in peripheral tissues for production of energy.

iii. converted to glucose in hepatic cells in the process of gluconeogenesis.

iv. Synthesis of other derived compounds like steroids and eicosanoids in gonadal and other tissues

v. Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesteryl esters.

Biotechnology is being harnessed in various aspects of the livestock industry to hasten breed development for improved animal health and welfare, enhanced reproduction, and improved nutritional quality and safety of animal-derived foods. Various biotechnology methods are used in improving the breeding stock of animals. These include artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET), in-vitro fertilization (IVF), sexing of semen and embryos, micromanipulation of oocytes/ embryos, transgenesis, somatic cell nuclear transfer and the emerging technology on genomics and marker-assisted selection (MAS). Artificial Insemination: One of the earliest perfected technology is artificial insemination (AI) where new breeds of animals are produced through the introduction of the male sperm from one superior male to the female reproductive tract without mating. AI reduces transmission of venereal disease, lessens the need of farms to maintain breeding males, facilitates more accurate recording of pedigrees, and minimizes the cost of introducing improved genetics. Various technologies have evolved that led to the efficient use of AI in developing desired livestock, including the methods of freezing semen or cryopreservation and sperm sexing.

Introduction

Diagnostic biochemistry, is a branch of laboratory medicine that focuses on the analysis of bodily fluids to diagnose and monitor diseases. This field plays a crucial role in understanding the biochemical mechanisms underlying various conditions, enabling accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and management. The biological samples for diagnosis include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid and tissues.

Factors Affecting Serum Enzyme Activity or Protein Level

1. Organ Mass and Enzyme Tissue Concentration:

• Higher enzyme concentrations in organs can lead to greater increases in serum enzyme activity during disease. For instance, the liver’s large mass contributes to potential increases in serum ALT activity.

2. Cell Location

• The proximity of cellular enzymes to the blood, urine, or other fluids determines the fluid in which an enzyme’s activity will increase upon cell injury. For example, renal tubular gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is released into urine, not blood, following injury.

Introduction

Biological fluids refer to any liquid substances found within living organisms that play essential roles in physiological functions. These fluids can include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, digestive juices, rumen fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, milk etc.

Collection of biological fluids refers to the process of gathering various types of bodily f luids from animals for scientific study or medical purposes. This collection often involves techniques like blood draws, urine collection, cerebrospinal fluid sampling, saliva collection, etc., depending on the specific fluid and the research or diagnostic needs. These f luids are valuable for understanding the health, metabolism, genetics, and other aspects of animal biology. Collecting and analyzing these biological fluids is crucial for understanding health and disease processes, diagnosing illnesses, monitoring treatment effectiveness, and advancing medical and scientific research.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

All farmed animals are transported at some stage in their lives, sometimes to places where food is more readily available, sometimes to a different owner or a different place of keeping and sometimes to slaughter. The handling, loading, transporting and unloading of animals can have very substantial effects on their welfare. Wherever   poor welfare associated with the transport of animals is prevented, there is an immediate financial advantage because mortality rates and carcass downgrading are reduced. The attitude towards animals has major consequences on animal welfare during transportation. Therefore, laws and codes of practice can also have significant effects on animal welfare during transport. In order to produce guidelines that can be used to prevent or minimise poor welfare in animals during transport, it is necessary to be aware of the biological functioning of the animals concerned and the attitudes and actions of the people involved in the handling and transport procedures.

The primary role of the respiratory system is to provide O2 to the tissues for metabolic needs and remove the CO2 formed by them. Body needs oxygen to oxidise the food nutrients and derive energy. In this process carbon dioxide is produced in the body, which is toxic and must be removed quickly and efficiently. The oxygen utilization & carbon dioxide production takes place within the mitochondria of cells of the various tissues.

The number of people is expected to increase from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050. (UN, 2013). This represents a 33% increase in population, but the demand for agricultural products will climb by approximately 70% during the same time period as the global quality of living rises (FAO, 2009). Livestock is essential for ensuring food security.

Introduction
The safety of meat and its derivatives is a paramount concern in the dynamic realm of food trade. Consumers demand food products that are not only affordable and possess an extended shelf life but are also of high safety standards. Consequently, meat inspections require strict adherence to good manufacturing practices and safety labelling that aligns with regulatory standards. Food-borne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp., are responsible for numerous illnesses, thereby exerting a significant impact on public health and the economy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), food contaminated with pathogens, chemicals, and allergens results in 600 million cases of food-borne illnesses and approximately 400,000 deaths globally each year. Furthermore, 56 million individuals die annually, with about 7.7% of the global population affected by foodborne diseases. Meat and meat products are essential sources of nutrients for humans, providing high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, and minerals. However, due to their high-water activity and nutrient content, they also create a conducive environment for spoilage microorganisms and food-borne pathogens. Until a few decades ago, the meat industry was largely dominated by the unorganized sector, with limited access to knowledge that could enhance productivity. However, in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, meat entrepreneurs have succeeded in increasing productivity, although they have faced challenges in ensuring product quality that aligns with the legislative standards of numerous developed and developing countries. The use of antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promoters in animal food production has been a contentious issue, as their unauthorized application has inadvertently contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the food chain. Recently, the United States Trade Representative’s office estimated that international trade has expanded significantly since the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. The establishment of the WTO in 1995 further facilitated trade in animal-origin foods and live animals between nations. However, the emergence and re-emergence of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria have become a significant concern in this new pattern of food trade. Some of these pathogens are so virulent that they were not previously reported. According to a 1998 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the annual cost of foodborne illnesses in the United States is nearly 10 billion US dollars. The bacterial pathogens most commonly associated with illnesses from beef products include Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. Interest in Escherichia coli O157: H7 increased following a highly publicized food poisoning outbreak linked to undercooked beef patties in the United States in 1993, although it was largely confined to North America until the mid-1990s. Similarly, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT-104 has spread widely since it was first identified in the United Kingdom. In India, the incidence of Salmonella in red meat was recorded at up to 9%. These potentially harmful bacterial pathogens can reside on the hides or in the intestinal tracts of foodproducing animals or may originate indirectly through cross-contamination or the processing environment. Other emerging foodborne diseases include Listeriosis, which has spread throughout France and Canada, where meat and meat products have been implicated as sources of Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, Staphylococcal food poisoning or food intoxication syndrome, first reported in 1894, has become a global issue in the meat industry.

Lactation is the process of milk secretion by the mammary gland. Lactation is the final phase of the complete reproductive cycle of mammals. Newborns of most species are dependent on maternal milk during the neonatal period. Lactation is therefore essential for survival of the species.

Van-Gieson Stain for Collagen Fibers
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinize sections and hydrate to water through descending grades of alcohol.
2) Remove mercury crystals if tissue fixed in Zenker’s or Helly’s fluid.
3) Stain in iron haemotoxylin solution for 2 to 3 minutes.
4) Wash in running water for 10-15 minutes.
5) Rinse in distilled water.
6) Counter stain in Van Gieson’ssolution for 2-3 minutes.
7) Two to three dips in 96% alcohol.
8) Dehydrate through absolute alcohol and clear in xylene.
9) Mount with D.P.X mountant.
Observations:
Red : Collagen fibers
Yellow : Muscles, RBC and cornified epithelium
Blue : Nuclei

8.1. Classification

The ruminants belong to the Order Artiodactyla. The families in order of Artiodactyla include Camelidae, Tragulidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Antliocapridae, and Bovidae.

The family Camelidae includesGuanaco (Lama guanicoe), Llama (Lama glama), Alpaca or South American camelid mammal (Lama pacos), Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), and Bactrian or two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus).

The family Tragulidae includes Chevrotains originate from Africa (Hyumo schusaquaticus) and Chevrotains that originate from Asia (Tragulus species).

The family CervidaeincludesWhite tailed deer(Odococlius virginianus), Follow deer (Dama dama), Roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus), Axis deer (Axis axis), Reindeer (Rangiter tarandus), Musk deer (Moschus species) and Chinese water deer (Hydropotes species).

ABSTRACT

Benthic fishes represent a significant component of riffle communities. Our 10 year study on two benthic fishes, Crossostoma lacustre and Rhinogobius candidianus which are sympatric in Hapen Creek, Northern Taiwan, reveals that these species exhibited mesohabitat overlaps but were segregated at the microhabitat levels. Both species preferred riffles and avoided rocks. Heavy flow (typhoons) had an inhibitory effect on the fish densities. The fishes may not be able to swim against the strong currents and might get carried away downstream. The recovery time (number of days after a peak, when the densities were restored to normalcy) for C. lacustre was = 13 days and for R. candidianus, it was = 16 days. Recovery was faster at the downstream (~13-15 days) as opposed to upstream (~1416 days). Direct estimation of the linkage between the hydrological or geomorphological variables and the well being of fish populations is one of the first steps in formulating an efficient, effective conservation plan or restoration strategy to preserve these species for the future.

9.1. Classification: Order Perissodactyla

The order Perissodactyla, also known as odd-toed ungulates, is a group of herbivorous mammals characterized by having one or three toes on each foot. They are distinguished from even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) by this anatomical feature. Even-toed ungulates, such as pigs, cows, and deer, have an even number of toes (two or four) on each foot. Some of the well-known members of this order include horses, zebras, asses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.

The name “Perissodactyla” comes from the Greek words “perissos,” meaning “odd,” and “daktylos,” meaning “finger or toe,” referring to their unique foot structure. Unlike even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which bear weight on their third and fourth toes, perissodactyls primarily bear weight on their third toe.