eChapters

5.1 Replication
    DNA Replication in Bacteria
    DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
    
5.2 Transcription

5.3 Translation

4.1 DNA: The word means
    
4.2 Double Helical Structure: The Watson and Crick Model
    
4.3 Family of DNA 
    
4.4 The Chromosomes

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the giant molecule that carries genetic information in living things, is made up of just a few chemical building blocks that bond together in very particular ways. A typical molecule of DNA consists of two strands that are linked together. A segment can be visualized as a ladder-like structure:

The DNA as made of two strands, a left and a right, which are linked in the middle. In reality, since the ladder is twisted, there really is no “right” or “left,” but we use that terminology here since it applies to the model graphs. The square shapes and diamonds you see in the middles of the “rungs” are the links, which are meant to represent the different chemical bonds between the two strands of DNA.

The selection of right dog for the required purposes like watching, hunting, guarding, showing, companionship and even animal associated therapies nowadays, warrants a detailed information on various dog breeds, like physical and other specific characteristics which may be different to each other. This  chapter  gives important characteristics of dog breeds and guidelines for buying a pup.

Drugs acting on alimentary system

Drugs acting on respiratory system

Drugs acting on urinary system

Drugs acting on genital system

Drugs acting on musculoskeletal system

Antineoplastic drugs

Antimicrobials

Antifungal

Antiprotozoal

Anthelmintics

The drug action can be adversely affected by the presence/concomitant administration of another drug/ agent, may be inhibiting its absorption, metabolism or excretion. Some of the drugs are incompatible with IV fluids, resulting in their inefficacy. The important drug interactions to be taken into consideration while administering a drug, are tabulated in this chapter.

9.1 Methylases
    
9.2 Polymerases
    
9.3 Nucleases
    
9.4 Ligases
    
9.5 Phosphatase
    
9.6 Topoisomerase
    
9.7 Restriction enzymes

The annual milk production in Tamil Nadu during 2009-10 from crossbred cows, non-descript cows and buffaloes were 42.28,7.89 and 7.61 lakh tones, respectively. Tamil Nadu had 59.83 lakhs crossbred female cows in the year 2007 as against 41.47 lakhs in 2003 with an annual growth rate of 9.59 per cent (Anon, 2010). With the increasing crossbred cattle population and average annual production, better management of the high producers becomes a necessity. Production and health of animals depend mostly on environment in which they live. A satisfactory environment for any farm livestock is the one that ensures not only optimal productivity but also meets the health and behavioral needs of the animals. A satisfactory environment is the one that satisfies the following four criteria: thermal comfort, physical comfort, disease control and behavioral satisfaction. The most important environmental interventions done in recent days are those that have been done in housing and other attempts to ameliorate the thermal environment. The effort of the body to maintain a stable internal environment to challenges from widely variable environments was first described by Claude Bernard (1878) and later referred to as homeostasis (Cannon, 1932). An environment in which stressors are minimized would likely be favorable for efficient production of products derived from domestic farm animals and for helping ensure the well-being of those species.

The table gives the approximate date of parturition, based on the date of breeding/mating in the year as a easy ready reference table.

Fluid therapy plays an important role in emergency and critical care of  the malnourished, anemic, unhealthy and debilitated animals and as a supportive therapy in various disease conditions, accidents etc. The type, rate and quantity of fluids indicated for common abnormal conditions  in various animals are dealt in brief in  the following chapter.

1    Suggested fodder species for different regions

2    Package of practices for cultivated fodder crops

3    Estimation of agricultural by-products

The demand for agricultural and livestock products is rising and the challenge to feed 8 billion people in 2020 is considerably enormous. Further, it is also hard to imagine meeting 2050-projected demand by raising twice as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources (Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003). The food systems encompass activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food security (Fig. 14.1).The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical and human environments influence both the activities and the outcomes.

“Terra”per se is an extraordinarily complex, messy geophysical system with dozens of variables, most of which change in response to one another. The basic proposition behind the science of climate change is also rooted in the floral and faunal cohabiting with the Homo sapiens. Livestock and related fodder cultivation and the green waste generated in a farming enterprise are of extreme significance when we ponder over the climate change. Confusion and complacency reigns the thinking process and planning process related to climate change. Confusion in the sense, that risk communication in this regard is so placid. Complacency, we say due to the lackadaisical attitude of our policy makers. To make it very plain, fodder production sector as well as farm sector will suffer the most in Kerala for want of scientific thinking, planning and execution.

6.1 Prokaryotic Gene Expression
    
6.2 The lac  Operon
    
6.3 The trp  Operon

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the atmospheric trace gases which absorb and emit infra-red radiation and thereby trapping the heat radiated from the earth surface. The commonly known agriculturally important GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). The major anthropogenic sources of CO₂ emission in atmosphere are biosphere, burning of fossil fuels and land use changes in tropical forests. The atmospheric concentration of CO₂ has increased from 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750 to 394 ppmv in 2012 and is currently increasing at the rate of 1.9 ppmv year-1 (NOAA, 2012). Atmospheric CH₄ concentration has increased from about 715 to 1826 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) in 2012 over the same period and is increasing at the rate of 7 ppbv year-1 (IPCC, 2007; EPA, 2013). Similarly, the atmospheric concentration of N₂O has increased from about 270 ppbv in 1750 to 325 ppbv and is increasing at the rate of 0.8 ppbv year-1 (IPCC, 2007; EPA, 2013).

1    Normal haemotological values

2    Blood biochemical values

Heat stress induced by climate change is a serious issue of livestock industries worldwide (Bajagai, 2011). When environmental temperatures move out of the thermo-neutral zone (or comfort zone) animals begins to experience either heat stress or cold stress. Both these stresses require the animals to increase the amount of energy used to maintain the body temperature so that less energy is available for productive processes. Atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, air movement and solar radiation are the major factors that determine the heat load on animal. Thermoregulation is the ability of the animals to maintain their body temperature in cold or hot environments. It consists of behavioural, physiological and anatomical responses that affect energy metabolism. At lower temperature as a physiological adjustment to maintain the body temperature the animal increases the metabolic heat production by increasing the basal metabolic rate and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. Hence the maintenance energy requirement of animals increases in a cold environment, which reduces the amount of energy available for production. From a practical point of view higher temperatures are much more dangerous for producing animals than a cold environment. Temperatures exceeding the higher critical level compromise animal performance not only by changing the energy and nutrient metabolism, but also by upsetting the body homeostasis, with detrimental consequences both for immune competence and for product quality. In general, livestock with high production potential are at greatest risk of heat stress, and require most attention.

Some of the Homeopathic remedies followed for common disease conditions of animals are listed in brief in the following chapter.

Evidence over the past few decades has conclusively established that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide as a result of enhanced anthropogenic activities. The fast pace of development and industrialization and indiscriminate destruction of natural environment, more so in the last century, have altered the concentration of atmospheric gases that lead to global warming. The major cause for climate change and global warming has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc. beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural related practices.

The arid and semi-arid regions of India are drought prone and the availability vegetation of these regions is more acute during summer when the quality of the pastures becomes vulnerable. Small ruminants in the semi-arid regions need to adopt special physiological function to maintain thermal equilibrium. The reproductive efficiency of different breeds of sheep inhabiting in the semi-arid regions of India is relatively low (Arora and Garg, 1998).The nature of nutritional resources and management problems differs with climate, soil and vegetation, the physical process which governs the animals reproductive performance are the same; the female must reach puberty, show behavioral estrus and shed one or more ova which have then to be fertilized. Dietary nutrition promotes the programming and expression of the metabolic pathways that enable animals to achieve their genetic potential for reproduction. Nutrition has an important impact on the reproductive performance in sheep, but the magnitude of the effect on reproduction may vary with the season (White et al., 1983). Sheep are more prone to neglect compared to cattle and often suffer from lack of feed and fodder. The animals during the grazing are exposed to combined stress (Sejian et al., 2010 ab, and 2011) .This leads to decrease in body weight and loss of reproductive functions. Concurrently, Rhind and Mc Neilly (1986) showed that ewes with low body fat reserves had fewer large ovarian follicles and therefore the potential for subsequent maturation and ovulation declined.