eChapters

Taxidermy
The word ‘Taxidermy’ is derived from the Greek taxis meaning “fixing” or arrangement and derma meaning ‘skin’. It is possible to perform taxidermy of mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles and amphibians and procedure to perform taxidermy is also variable accordingly. In this case we will see the procedure applied to prepare a big cat (Tiger, lion, leopard etc.).
Skinning
To skin an animal make an inclusion from the chin along the belly to tip of tail, Then from paw to paw across the chest, and deal similarly with the hind legs. If they are done haphazard, The appearance of the skin will be completely wrecked. Place the carcass on its back and make an incision through the chin and carry it along the centre of the throat to the chest. There is a whorl of hair which runs from the chest along the belly to the vent, then carry the incision along from the vent to tip of tail. Fore- legs, after cutting through the ball of the pad the incision must be made exactly through the center of the white till it reaches the incision which is made from chin to tip of tail, the other foreleg is treated in the same way, both these incision should meet on the chest, and not end one above the other, Hind-legs after cutting through the ball of the pad. The incision runs behind the leg to end of the calcaneum, then turn inside the thigh. The hind leg, of course must be done in the same way. It will be better to mark with charcoal on proposed incision lines before the skinning carried out. After the pads have been skinned and turned back, also inside of the thigh and belly, there is not much need for the knife as the skin ought to be removed by what butchers term ‘ fisting ‘. Get someone to hold the leg to keep the carcass rigid, when the skinners pull the skin taut with his left hand and, with his right first clenched, process vigorously on the skin close to the

Schultz Method for Cholesterol
Frozen sections; cold calcium-cadmium-formalin fixed sections
Protocol
1) Thoroughly wash the sections in distilled water for 24 hours, changing the water several times.
2) Incubate the sections in 2.5% ferric ammonium sulphate solution at 37oC for 7 hours.
3) Wash the sections three times in fresh acetate buffer, allowing 1 hour for each wash.
4) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
5) Immerse in 5% formalin for 10 minutes.
6) Mount the sections onto slides, blotting the edges to remove excess water. Do not let the sections dry out.
7) Place a drop of a 1:1 mixture of sulphuric and acetic acids on a coverslip. Invert the slide and lower it onto the coverslip. Then turn the slide rightside up and gently press the coverslip to flatten the section. Hold the coverslip by its corners and gently oscillate it a few times to ensure even spreading.

Principle

The majority of cell lines are cultivated as monolayer adherent cells, meaning they only grow on the surfaces of culture vessels. However, there are particular cells that are non-adhesive and do not rely on external support for their growth, referred to as suspension cells. A suspension culture, is a cell culture where individual cells or small cell clusters grow and multiply in a stirred growth medium, forming a suspension. Subculturing, also known as passaging cells, involves transferring cells from a previous culture into fresh growth medium to allow the cell line to continue growing. Suspension cultures involve the suspension of cells in a liquid medium and agitation at a specific speed to ensure that the cells are uniformly exposed to nutrient media from every angle. This method prevents cell aggregation and enhances nutrient absorption, thereby promoting cell growth. The maintenance of these cultures is achieved by transferring the cells from the early stationary phase to a fresh medium through subculturing. During the incubation period, there is an increase in both cell division and cell enlargement, leading to rapid cellular growth. The viability of cells in the suspension decreases after the stationary phase due to the exhaustion of certain factors or the accumulation of toxic substances in the medium. This decrease in the viability of the cells further reduces the growth rate of the entire culture. Next, a portion of the cell suspension is added to the freshly prepared medium with the same composition.

Bielschowsky’s Method for Axis Cylinders and Dendrites
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections Protocol:
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water 5 minutes.
4) 2% Silver nitrate solution for 48 hours, in the dark.
5) Rinse quickly in double distilled water.
6) Ammoniacal silver solution 10-20 minutes or until sections turn a deep brown.
7) Rinse in distilled water.
8) Reduce in 20% formalin solution for 5 minutes. Sections appear a dark brownish black.
9) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
10) Tone in gold chloride solution for 1 hour. Sections will be a reddish violet colour.
11) Rinse thoroughly in distilled water.
12) Sodium thiosulfate solution for 1 minute.
13) Wash in tap water.
14) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute ethanol (one minute each).

The Millon Reaction
Tissues fixation in 10% neutral buffered formalin solution
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of alcohol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water for 5 minutes.
4) Transfer the sections to a small beaker with the reagent and gently boil.
5) Stop the heating process and let the solution cool to room temperature.
6) Remove the sections and rinse them three times in distilled water (2 minutes each).
7) Dehydrate in ascending grades of 90% to absolute alcohol (one minute each).
8) Clear in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each.
9) Mount glass cover slip with DPX.

Introduction

During the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in use of artificial insemination (AI) by commercial swine producers in many European countries. Till 1990, less than 7% of sows & gilt in the USA were bred by Artificial Insemination. Today, over 70% of the animals are bred by AI. Maybe in a couple of years all swine producers will probably utilize this technology.

In India, it is still in infant stage. Some research work has already been done in scattered ways in various Research Institutes but it is still in the four walls of the laboratory. Some Govt. farms have been doing AI in swine with liquid semen.

Pig is the most important livestock in all Northeastern Hill States and there is no superior indigenous germplasm available in this region. Productivity of local pigs is very low. All through, improvement programmes had undertaken in different state Govt. farms, Central Govt. farms through upgrading with the help of suitable exotic pig breeds like Hampshire, Large Black, and Large White Yorkshire etc. Superior germplasm was distributed to farmers for better productivity. But, improvement till date is not impressive due to lack of superior germless, high feed cost, lack of breeder farmers and lack of incentives to the poor farmers. Maintenance of breeding boar for small farmers is very expensive not only in individual capacity but also on community basis. So, AI is the only tool for quicker, safer, quicker and economic why out for swine improvement like cattle.

Teratology : is the study of abnormal development. If the malformation involves an organ or only a portion of the body, it is called an anomaly. If it is so extensive great deformity of the individual occurs when the animal is designated a monster.

etiological basis of teratology : All teratogenic agents directly or indirectly ar;ect the process of cell differentiation. These agents are divided into two broad categories i.e genetic or Intrinsic factors and environmental or extrinsic factors.

Genetic or Intrinsic factors : There are several types of genetic factors that result in abnormal development.

Introduction

Test of pollen viability (extent of pollen viability) is important in pollination experiments to ensure fertility/seed setting. It is also important in monitoring state of pollens during storage in ecological/ taxonomic studies as well as during research on pollen biochemistry, genetics, stigma interactions, and incompatibility studies. Pollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to accomplish post-pollination events to achieve fertilization. Pollen viability test has gained importance particularly in plant breeding and hybrid seed production experiments/ practices. In this chapter, you will be acquainted with the basics of pollen viability test. However, for more professional knowledge on the topic readers are suggested to refer specialized books.

Pollen Viability Test

It is important to know the extent of viability of pollens used in pollination experiment, in finding fertility of a plant of interest, to monitor state of pollen on storage, in ecological/taxonomic studies, as well as in research on biochemistry, genetics, stigma interaction, incompatibility assay, etc. of pollen. Several pollen viability tests have been developed time-to-time. It is recommended to initially use different tests for a given pollen type to find out the most appropriate method that provides reliable result on pollen viability. It is important to note that every procedure requires standardization of protocol according to the sample used. Following different tests are used for assessing pollen viability.

1. In-vitro Pollen Germination Test

It is a simple, speedy, and quantitative test for assessing pollen viability. In this method, a collection/sample of pollen is germinated in vitro and observed under microscope. The percentage of germinating pollens (producing pollen tube) after appropriate treatment and a given period of time is determined. The percentage provides an index of viability of the pollen sample.

Introduction

Seed is a living entity (mature ovule) consisting of a tiny plant in embryonic stage along with the stored food protected by an outer layer known as seed coat. Seed is an important biological input in agriculture, which is economically important for successful crop husbandry. Cotyledons serve as the source of nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and oils) that not only nurture the plant at the early developmental (seedling) stages of plant but also the vegetarian (heterotroph) organisms. Being one of the important inputs in agriculture, viability of seed needs to be assessed to know the germination percentage of seeds used to raise a crop. Since viability of seeds may deteriorate on storage depending on the storage conditions. Therefore, often it becomes important to test viability/germinability and vigour of seeds before being used for raising a crop or conducting an experiment. In this chapter, we briefly discuss about the different methods which can be used for testing the viability of seeds.

Seed Viability

Seed viability can be defined as the capability of the seed to germinate and produce a normal seedling within a specified period. In other words, seed viability indicates how many seeds in a lot are alive and could develop into plants under appropriate field conditions. It is very important that most of the stored seeds are capable of germinating when sown in a field. They must possess higher viability at the beginning of storage and maintain it over the storage. A seed with high initial viability survives longer in storage; however, the viability deteriorates slowly at first and then rapidly as the storage prolongs. It is important to know the duration of storage after which a considerable decline in viability occurs under given storage conditions so that to take necessary action to revive the seeds. Excessive deterioration in vianility of seeds may lead to loss of the seed/material/ germplasm.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a major worldwide health issue, requiring the search for natural, safe, and efficient substitutes for synthetic antibiotics. The ancient medical system known as Ayurveda lists a variety of polyherbal compositions having jwaraghna (antipyretic) and krimighna (antimicrobial) qualities. A traditional decoction preparation that is frequently prescribed for microbial infestations (krimi), wound infections, fevers, and skin conditions called Nimbadi Kwatha.Strong herbs that have been separately shown to have antibacterial and immunomodulatory properties, including Nimba (Azadirachta indica), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Triphala (Haritaki, Bibhitaki, Amalaki), Vasa (Adhatoda vasica), and Katuki (Picrorhiza kurroa), make up Nimbadi Kwatha. Triphala has antimicrobial and antioxidant qualities, Guduchi boosts host immunity and has antibacterial qualities, and Neem provides broad-spectrum antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity. According to experimental studies, giloy extracts are effective against a variety of pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It has a distinct antimicrobial activity that involves two mechanisms: it enhances phagocytosis, changes cytokine production, and activates macrophages. In light of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), T. cordifolia is a prospective option for the development of plant-based antimicrobials and integrated therapies. Its use is backed by both modern pharmacological research and ethnomedicinal history for infectious disorders and immune health. Nimbadi Kwatha and its derivatives, including Nimbadi Ubatan and soap formulations, have been shown to have antibacterial properties by modern pharmacological research, which also showed a notable inhibition of bacterial and fungal growth in vitro. These results demonstrate the value of Ayurveda in treating infectious diseases and lend credence to its traditional claims. To close the gap between traditional knowledge and contemporary evidence, a thorough analysis of Nimbadi Kwatha’s antibacterial impact is essential. It also identifies the plant’s potential as a natural remedy for drug-resistant infections.

Introduction

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease marked by itching (pruritus), redness (erythema), and recurrent infections. While traditionally considered an immune-mediated condition, recent studies highlight the significant role of skin barrier dysfunction in its development. A key aspect of CAD is the compromised skin barrier, which increases permeability to allergens, irritants, and microorganisms, thereby worsening the disease. The skin barrier is a complex, dynamic structure essential for protecting dogs from environmental challenges. The stratum corneum—the outermost layer of the epidermis—serves as a crucial defense against environmental insults, allergens, and pathogens. In dogs with atopic dermatitis, this barrier often becomes impaired, leading to increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), greater allergen penetration, and secondary infections. This dysfunction both results from and contributes to the condition, creating a self-perpetuating cycle of barrier disruption, inflammation, and immune dysregulation.

The best environment for growing cells is similar to  the conditions what they experience in vivo. A number of various environmental factors affecting the tissues are :
 
    (1)    Temperature : In living matter, complicated chemical reactions are happened at comparatively low temperature.  In most of the mammalian and avian tissues the temperature  is 37^ºC to 38.5^ºC. If the temperature is enhanced to 45^ºC, cells are destroyed within  an hour but survive 12-24 hours at 42^ºC. It is applicable to most of the fibroblasts and epithelial  types of cells arising  from  mammalian tissues. Some of the mammalian cells ( human skin epithelial cells)  and amphibian cells  prefer lower temperature but fish tissue will not survive beyond 20^ºC.

Introduction 
The discovery of antibiotics—one of the greatest medical breakthroughs of the 20th century—began when Sir Alexander Fleming noticed that the fungus Penicillium notatum inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus spp. This finding sparked a search for similar properties in other fungi and bacteria. From 1940 to 1960, known as the ‘Golden Era of Antibiotic Discovery’, most modern antibiotics such as streptomycin, tetracycline, rifampicin, and nalidixic acid were identified through natural product screening (Clardy et al., 2006; Lewis, 2013). However, the declaration that “it is time to close the book on infectious diseases and declare the war against pestilence won” proved to be premature (Davies & Davies, 2010). It was not a final victory but a fragile truce. In the ongoing war between humans and microbes—nature’s own creations—our successes are brief, and the microbial battleground keeps shifting. Bacteria’s genetic adaptability, coupled with human complacency, led to antimicrobial resistance (AMR), where microbes gradually evolved resistance to almost all known antibiotics (Ventola, 2015). Resistance appeared soon after antibiotics entered clinical use, but the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria marked major setbacks (Prestinaci et al., 2015; WHO, 2023). AMR gained global attention with the rise of pan-drug-resistant strains—resistant to all antibiotic classes—seen in Klebsiella (India), Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas (China, Italy, Greece), and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). The infamous case of

ABSTRACT

Insect societies such as those of ants, bees, wasps and termites are characterized by reproductive division of labour and cooperative brood care. Thus these societies consist of one or a smallnumber of reproductives (usually only queens but also kings in the case of termites) and a large number of sterile or nearly sterile workers

ABSTRACT

Science essentially involves confronting our ‘models’ of nature, against data from the real world, in a continuous effort to refine our knowledge of the system under study. Scientific monitoring of animal populations is therefore best viewed in the context of questions such as why monitor, what to monitor and how to monitor.

The wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 (No. 53 of 1972) consists of 7 chapters, 6 schedules and 66 sections. This act has been amended in 1980. This act further amended as The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act- 2002, from 17thJanuary, 2003. This act deals with all those matters related to wildlife in captivity/free range for conservation.

Chapter I (Preliminary)

It discusses about the terminologies and definition
Captive animal means any animal, specified in Schedule 1, Schedule II, Schedule III or Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity.
Circus means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile where animals are kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvrers.

Precision medicine and personalised treatment of systemic or tumour diseases gain their acceptance and application in veterinary care, too. The application of personalised medical protocols and companion diagnostics is easier and ethically well reasoned within the veterinary medical field – and it can offer many advantageous lessons to human clinical transformation, too [1]. In vitro companion diagnostics for testing the applicability and sensitivity levels of certain kinase inhibitor and immunotherapeutic drugs offer a greatly increased efficiency for veterinary cancer patients, too. As the understanding of cancer biology has advanced, the field of veterinary oncology has grown significantly, paralleling developments in human oncology. Precision medicine is an innovative approach to disease treatment and prevention that considers individual variability in genes, environment, and lifestyle. In the context of veterinary medicine, precision medicine aims to provide tailored therapies that are specifically designed for the unique genetic and molecular profile of each animal’s cancer. This approach moves away from the traditional “one-size-fits-all” model, instead focusing on targeted treatments that maximize efficacy while minimizing side effects. Companion diagnostics, such as molecular tests, help determine whether a dog or cat is likely to respond to a particular drug. For dogs and cats, precision medicine holds great promise in improving outcomes for cancers, which are among the leading causes of death in companion animals.

Boundaries

The cavity of thorax (thoracic cavity) is formed like a truncated cone which is compressed laterally in its cranial part and some what wider in its caudal part. The dorsal wall or roof of the thorax is formed by the thoracic vertebrae and the ligaments and muscles connected with them. The lateral walls are formed by the ribs and intercostal muscles and other muscles supporting the walls internally and externally. The floor or the ventral wall is formed by the sternum and costal cartilages along with the ligaments and muscles attached to them. The caudal wall or the base of the thorax is formed by the diaphragm. It slopes craniad and ventrad. It is bound dorsally by the last thoracic vertebra, ventrally by xiphoid cartilage and laterally by the last pair of ribs and the costal arch formed by the union of costal cartilages of asternal ribs. The apex of the cone is narrow, nearly oval or triangular in form and it is directed cranially. The cavity of the apex is bound dorsally by the first thoracic vertebra, laterally by the first pair of ribs and ventrally by the first sternebra along with manubrium sterni. The apex is fully occupied by the longus colli muscle, oesophagus, trachea, vessels, nerves and lymph nodes. The width of the thorax is greatest at the level of ninth ribs. The wall of the thorax is internally lined by the serous membrane which is a part of the pleura.

Thoracic Vertebrae

Ox: Thoracic vertebrae characterized by well developed neural spines, short bodies with capitular facets and transverse processes with tubercular facets for articulation with the ribs (Fig.4.1).

Floriculture has become very important industry as a result of science based techniques and steady supply of improved plant materials. One of the major constraints of floriculture industry is non availability of large scale quality planting materials. Conventional methods of propagation can not meet the increasing demand of propagating materials. Micropropagation is perhaps the most widely used biotechnology tool for large scale propagation of floricultural crops. This economic proposition has led to intensive practical research to evolve tissue culture techniques for mass propagation and production of virus-free plant material.  Since most of the ornamental crops are highly heterozygous, their seed progeny is not true-to-type. Conventionally in these plants vegetative reproduction method is followed to produce genetically identical plants at commercial scale. But the main constrain of this method is that only a limited number of plants can be raised in a year from a single mother plant and often fail to meet the market demand. Therefore, most of the modern floriculturists follow the micropropagation technique for rapid multiplication of ornamental plants.