eChapters

5.1. Introduction
The people of every nation would be healthier if they adopted healthier lifestyles. A Good nutrition, daily exercise and proper sleep are the base of healthy living. A healthy lifestyle denoted by fit, energetic and at minimize possibility for disease. According to WHO, Healthy living is a way of living that helps you enjoy more aspects of your life. It is a way of living that lowers the risk of being seriously ill or dying early. Health is not just about avoiding a disease or illness.
5.2. Concept of Health
According to WHO, Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity. The holistic approach of health is the individual’s health and lifestyle considering all four factors, physical, intellectual, emotional and social. It concern about the whole body and mind not just a part of the body and the symptoms of the problem. It will look at the lifestyle of the individual such as nutritional deficiencies, reason of stress and why there is a lack of good health and wellbeing. A holistic approach will engage the individual taking responsibility for their health and well-being. They do this by educating themselves and being active in maintaining and improving their health and well-being.
5.2.1. Positive Health
Positive Health is the scientific study of health assets. A “health asset” is a factor that construct stronger health, over and above risk factors for disease. Positive Health works to find which specific health assets produce longer, healthy life, and which health assets lower disease risk and health care costs. The aim is to strive for optimal health —beyond the mere absence of illness.

Hydrates carbons (saccharides) found in nature (animals and plants) are classified into three groups based on the number of monosaccharides found or released upon acid hydrolysis. Monosaccharides the groups of carbohydrates.
3.1 Formulation of Monosaccharides
The molecular formula of any monosaccharide (mono=one and saccharide=sugar) is Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n. Rhamnose and Deoxyribose are exceptions to the general formula of carbohydrates. Acetic acid (C2H4O2) and formaldehyde (CH2O) are not carbohydrates but have the formula Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n. Fitting and Baeyer proposed the formula CHO-(CHOH)4-CH2OH, which indicates the presence of aldehyde and five hydroxyl groups.
More than one monosaccharide molecule unites to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides, being simpler units, cannot be broken down further. Generally, they have two to ten carbon atoms per molecule (dioses to decoses). The monosaccharides may have either aldehyde or ketone groups. The one possible aldodiose (CH2OH.CHO) is glycolaldehyde (2-hydroxyethanal), but ketodiose is not possible since there are only two carbons. The glucose molecular formula C6H12O6 represents the number of C, H, and O atoms but not groups. However, the proposed formula, CHO-(CHOH)4-CH2OH, indicates the presence of an aldehyde and five hydroxyl groups. These simple sugars or monosaccharides have carbon backbones linked by single bonds with hydrogen and hydroxyl groups attached in an unbranched manner.

6.1 Metabolism
Dietary components like carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are continuously broken down and synthesized through various chemical reactions (exergonic or endergonic) that are concerned with energy. These processes not only break them down but also interconvert them for their synthesis. Dietary components, when utilized, are known as nutrients the body. The number of reactions occurring in living cells maintains the body cells and fluid’s homeostasis and dynamic status. To keep the dynamic state of a cell, many reactions are going on to synthesize or break down the different types and sizes of molecules. The total of these reactions is known as metabolism.
The metabolism may be anabolic or catabolic. Further, it may be aerobic or anaerobic, depending on oxygen availability. These four terms are explained below:
I. Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism
• Aerobic metabolism-- In aerobic metabolism, the carbohydrates (substrate) in the presence of oxygen are metabolized to release energy, carbon dioxide, and water. The released energy is converted to ATP by two processes in the mitochondria (the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation). In oxidation, the electrons released from a glucose molecule are transferred to reduced NAD+ and FAD. The oxygen (electron acceptor) is reduced to water. Water formation [from H2(g) and O2(g)] is an exothermic reaction. The energy released from the chemical bond of glucose is captured as ATP, and heat is released.

A neuron is the basic unit of nervous tissue. It is specialized for the function of reception, integration and transmission of information in the body. The nerve cells are excitable, i.e. capable of generation of electrical impulses at their membranes. The electrical impulses generated in the excitable tissues, in most instances, can be used to transmit signals along the membranes.

3.1 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (AVERAGES)

When data are presented in raw form or in the form of frequency distribution, they fail to provide a general idea of the data under study. The general idea of statistical methods is to condense the raw data into a form that can convey some meaningful characteristic(s) of the data. Though classification simplifies the data and improves the understanding of the main characteristics in the data, it is still difficult to remember. In any distribution of data, values of a variable may tend to cluster (or concentrate) around a central value. The data must be condensed into a single value. Such presentation of data is called a Central Tendency and the measures devised to consider this tendency are known as Measures of Central Tendency.

An average condenses a frequency distribution or raw data and presents it in a single representative number. It is that single value which is considered as the most representative or typical value for a set of values. Such a value usually lies somewhere near the centre of the group. That is why, an average is usually referred to as a measure of central tendency. It is located at a point around which most of the other values tend to cluster and therefore it is also termed as a measure of central location.

Enzymes are remarkable biological macromolecules that catalyze chemical reactions with extraordinary efficiency, playing an essential role in sustaining life. These large protein molecules and certain catalytic RNA molecules known as ribozymes accelerate reactions by lowering activation energy, enabling them to occur at rates necessary for biological processes. Their specificity is just as impressive as their speed as enzymes are often highly regioselective and, in many cases, absolutely stereospecific, traits that synthetic chemists strive to replicate. They are vital in metabolism, DNA replication, signal transduction, and cellular respiration, operating under mild physiological conditions. Factors such as temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and the presence of inhibitors or activators influence their activity. Given their significance, enzymes have garnered attention in fields like drug design, disease treatment, and industrial applications. The modern study of enzymes continues to provide groundbreaking insights into chemistry and biology, advancing both scientific understanding and human welfare. Brief History of Enzymes The existence of enzymes was first inferred when specific biochemical reactions were observed to occur only after the addition of cell extracts, even though the enzymes themselves could not be directly identified like typical molecules. In the early days, enzymes within these extracts were highly impure and present in low concentrations, as advanced protein

Over the past decades climate change and climate related disaster risks have become more important than ever. The effects of climate change are unprecedented today and thus pose serious risks for human wellbeing, livelihoods and life-supporting systems. They also present serious challenges to society, in addition, increased climate variability significantly undermine the socio-economic development and environment. The consequences of climatic change, such as increase in frequency and extent of droughts, floods, cyclones, mudslides and avalanches have impacts on all sectors of economy including water, agriculture, fisheries, health, forestry, transport, tourism and energy sectors. Amongst these sectors, the agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors to impacts of climate change, which can have multiplicative effects on other sectors, as well as the economy and overall human being. The projected climate change towards warming may affect not only the crop cultivation but also on agro-climatic conditions for growing pasture vegetation, forming of feed stocks in pastures and conditions for grazing livestock. Favourable conditions for grazing livestock are determined, on the one hand, by sufficient amount of forage in pastures and on the other, by the extreme weather conditions that restrict the use of these fodders.

The world’s greatest source of cow and buffalo diversity is India, and countries like Australia, South Africa, Latin America, and the USA employ Indian cattle breeds to grow their livestock industries. The number of cattle in the nation represents 17% of all cattle in the world. 22-25% of the Indian cow population is made up of the best native milk, draught, and dual-purpose animal genetics. The majority of local cattle breeds are excellent drafters. Native livestock breeds are clearly superior in their use of subpar feed, have better heat tolerance, and greater resistance to tropical diseases.

5.1 Replication
    DNA Replication in Bacteria
    DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
    
5.2 Transcription

5.3 Translation

Symbolic systems provide logical reasoning and explicit knowledge representation, whereas sub-symbolic models offer learning, adaptation and pattern-recognition capabilities. This chapter explains how combining these approaches can create more accurate, adaptive and interpretable intelligent systems. It discusses rule-based systems, logic programming, ontologies, neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computation and swarm intelligence. Neural-symbolic, neuro-fuzzy, rule-augmented and ontology-aware architectures are examined, along with loose, tight and deep integration strategies. Applications in healthcare, cybersecurity, manufacturing and knowledge-based information systems demonstrate their practical potential. Challenges involving integration complexity, scalability, knowledge engineering, transparency and continuous updating are considered, together with future directions in human-centred hybrid intelligence.

Blood is the fluid pumped by the heart that circulates throughout the body via the arteries, veins, and capillaries . Blood is a body fluid in animals and human beings that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Hematology is the science or study of blood, blood-forming organs and blood diseases.

Carbohydrates are the macronutrients consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. In simpler terms, carbohydrates can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances, which yield them on hydrolysis. The general formula of carbohydrates is Cn (H2 O)n , where n is the number of carbon atoms. In nature, carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules. In the human diet, carbohydrates are one of the main nutrients that provide energy to the body. The green plants, through the process of photosynthesis, synthesize the carbohydrates.

Classification of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, originating from the Greek word sakcharon, which means sugar. However, not all saccharides have a sweet taste. Carbohydrates can be classified into three distinct groups: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The number of sugar units determines this classification.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are the most basic carbohydrates. They are the monomers that serve as the building blocks for forming polymers or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are the most simple carbohydrates possessing carbonyl groups, i.e., aldehyde (CHO) and ketone (C=O) groups with two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. Monosaccharide has the generic formula Cn (H2 O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms. Monosaccharides are sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed further to form simple carbohydrates. These crystalline solids without color dissolve in water but remain insoluble in non-polar solvents.

Introduction Biochemical techniques are a set of methods/tools used to analyze and study biomolecules, cellular processes of body and disease diagnosis. The techniques form the cornerstone of modern research and are applied in various fields such as medical science, forensic science, drug discovery as well as environmental studies. Briefly, such techniques are used to isolate, analyze, and manipulate biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. It is therefore imperative to understand the principle of biochemical techniques for pursuing a career in biological science such as Biochemistry, molecular biology or Biochemistry. Biochemical techniques offer several uses across multiple scientific areas such as: • Medical Research: In the identification of biomarkers, diagnosis of disease conditions such as diabetes and cancer and development of therapeutic interventions. • Pharmaceutical Industry: In this biochemical

Whenever we get a cut, a red fluid comes out of the wound. This red fluid is called blood. Blood is very important for the body as is evident from the fact that the loss of blood from the body makes it weak and may even cause death. Physiologically the blood is a red tissue composed of cells suspended in a pale yellow fluid, plasma. Unicellular organisms that live in immediate contact with the external environment obtain nutrients directly from that environment and eliminate unused or unwanted materials. Blood and lymph are important connecting fluids among the diverse anatomical structures of the mammalian organisms. Thus blood is the liquid vehicle by which the major organic nutrients are transported from the intestine where they are absorbed, to the liver where they are processed and thence to other organs. Similarly blood is the liquid vehicle for the transport of waste materials from various organs to the kidney and gastrointestinal tract from where they are eliminated. Thus the blood is the major transport carrier of nutrients, metabolites, oxygen, hormones, waste products etc. inside the body. Blood is an important medium to maintain homeostasis of various electrolytes in the body. Besides blood provides the army against any external attack on the body by harmful microorganisms. This army is in the form of cells, called white blood or corpuscles or leucocytes.

In a normal adult human being, about 5 to 6 litre of blood is present which is about 8 percent of the body weight. In domestic animals generally 5 to 8 per cent of the body weight is blood (say 30-40 litre in a cow). The blood is composed of two parts, the cells and the fluid part or plasma. The cellular constituents of blood include erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles, leucocytes or white blood corpuscles and thrombocytes or platelets. The cellular constituents of blood varies with the species as well as with the age and physiological stage of the animal.

The extracellular constituents or plasma is composed of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, glucose, enzymes and hormones etc. The blood undergoes coagulation on exposure to air leaving clear watery fluid, called serum. The serum is nothing but plasma minus fibrinogen and other clotting factors. The serum is a clear yellowish fluid. The yellow colour is due to the presence of small quantities of bilirubin, a bile pigment and of carotenoids. The blood serum of cattle is yellow due to presence of more of carotenoids whereas that of buffalo is white due to the absence of carotenoids. The blood clot consists of a network of fibrous strands of fibrin in which are enmeshed the cellular elements of the blood. Blood clotting is a protective mechanism against excessive loss of blood from the body. The lymph also clots, although, somewhat more slowly than blood.

Pathology is derived from Greek word (Pathos=disease + logos=study). It is study of structure and function of body in disease.

Veterinary Pathology is the study of anatomical, chemical and physiological alterations in comparison to normal due to disease in animals. Pathology has responsibility to forms a vital bridge between preclinical sciences (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry) and clinical branches of medicine and surgery.

General Pathology deals with the basic alterations of tissues as a result of disease. e.g. fatty changes, thrombosis, amyloidosis, embolism, necrosis etc.

Systemic Pathology is related to the alterations in tissues/organs of a particular system. e.g. respiratory system, genital system etc.

Special Pathology is the application of the basic reactions of gene general pathology to various specific diseases.

Gross or Macroscopic Pathology is the examination of tissue without the help of a microscope.

A scientific experiment is a planned research to obtain new facts or to confirm or refute the results of previous experiments. Research is usually conducted in a controlled environment to study the effect of one or more variables on observations. The objective of research may be to answer a question, verify a hypothesis, or estimate the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. After stating the research problem, we need to outline the methodology (or materials and methods) of the research, which includes developing an experimental design.

Scientific experiments are conducted to study the causal relationships between independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s). The researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and measures their effect on one or more dependent variables. Designing an experiment is planning an experiment. It is a complete sequence of steps taken before experimenting to ensure that appropriate data are obtained to perform a data analysis to get valid inferences about the problem. It must be seen that the data collected are relevant to the problem investigated. E.g., studying the effect of breed, age, feed, etc. on milk output. Here, the objects like breed, age, feed, etc. are called treatments. That is, any specific experimental conditions (like the addition of feed additives, new feed formula, etc.) applied to the experimental units are called treatments. The basic objects on which the experiment is done are called experimental units (E.g., a bird, an insect, an animal). However, the responses in all the experimental units receiving the same treatments may not be similar, due to the inherent differences in the experimental units, called experimental error, caused by extraneous factors.

An animal disease is an economic process in the farming system, as it consumes a considerable amount of scarce economic resources that would have been otherwise productively utilized by the animals and results in negative benefits to society. Hence, while measuring the losses attributable to animal diseases, the manifestation of such losses and the factors influencing such losses may also be identified, which require modelling the ways by which the negative effects of the diseases are exhibited. A description of such models and their procedures is essential to understand the comprehensive effects of diseases. We will list and describe such models and tools in this chapter.

11.1 CORRELATION ANALYSIS

While simple descriptive statistical tools are adequate to estimate the economic effects of animal diseases, these tools cannot measure the nature and strength of the relationships between two or more variables. However, the statistical knowledge can effectively be used to understand Various statistical measures studied so far, like measures of central tendency and dispersion and skewness, relate to one variable only. However, there are many situations where there are several problems involving the use of two or more variables. Although correlation analysis is only a bivariate technique like t-test, ANOVA, and Chi square test, we will briefly see about correlation in this chapter, as it is also a part of multivariate analysis. The first step is to determine which bivariate analytical tool we need to adopt to test the study hypothesis.

Thoracic Vertebrae

Ox: Thoracic vertebrae characterized by well developed neural spines, short bodies with capitular facets and transverse processes with tubercular facets for articulation with the ribs (Fig.4.1).

3.1. Introduction

Various procedures performed on reptiles often necessitate chemical restraint or general anesthesia. Even routine tasks like physical examination and transportation can pose challenges, particularly with large or uncooperative reptilian patients. For safety reasons, venomous species are typically evaluated under chemical restraint. The respiratory anatomy and physiology of reptiles differ significantly from those of more familiar mammals, influencing their response to commonly used anesthetic agents. Historically, anesthetics recommended for reptiles had notable metabolic effects, but inhalant anesthesia has become more popular in recent times. Nonetheless, in species capable of anaerobic metabolism, induction with these agents may not be feasible (Girling 2013).

Introduction to Molecular Biology Techniques Molecular biology is the domain of biology concerned with DNA replication, RNA synthesis (transcription), translation, and the role of proteins in cellular function, while molecular biology techniques are the keystones of modern biology, facilitating scientists to decode these molecular foundations of life. These molecular techniques aim to analyze and understand the structure, function, and interactions of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. These techniques facilitate an understanding of complex life processes such as gene expression, genetic variations, and cellular mechanisms. Researchers have used these molecular tools to unravel complex biological processes from genetic inheritance to cellular signaling pathways. The knowledge gained has been applied to solve challenges in various domains of biological science such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental science. During 1960’s methods to identify, isolate and manipulate molecular components were developed by molecular biologists. The field of molecular biology emerged in mid 20th century, driven by groundbreaking discoveries such as the deduction of the double-helix of DNA