eChapters

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Ox: The lumbar vertebrae are characterized by elongated flattened transverse processes (projecting outwards) and large, strongly curved articular processes (Fig.5.1a). The body is constricted in the middle and expanded at the extremities. The anterior extermity is less convex and posterior is less concave. The posterior vertebral notches are much deeper. The intervertebral foramina are often double in the anterior part of the series and are very large further back.

The abdominal aorta is the continuation of thoracic part of the descending aorta which enters the abdominal cavity through hiatus aorticus of the diaphragm. After entering the abdominal cavity it passes caudally below the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and psoas minor muscle in contact with the left crus of the diaphragm and the ventral common vertebral ligament. After reaching at the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra, it terminates into iliac quadrification by dividing into two common iliac arteries. Each of the common iliac arteries further divides into internal and external iliac artery. The internal iliac artery supplies arterial branches to the wall and the viscera of the pelvic cavity while the external iliac artery supplies arterial branches to the pelvic limb of the corresponding side. The abdominal aorta is related dorsally to the bodies of lumbar vertebrae, ventral common ligament, tendon of left crus of diaphragm and psoas minor muscle, ventrally to the pancreas and rumen, on its right to the caudal vena cava and on its left to the left adrenal, left kidney and left ureter. The abdominal aorta gives out parietal and visceral branches that supply the walls and the viscera of abdominal cavity.

Parietal branches

The parietal branches of the abdominal aorta are the six pairs of the lumbar arteries. Out of these, four or five pairs arise from the dorsal surface of the aorta while the fifth or sixth pair depending on where the aorta terminates (fifth or sixth lumbar vertebral level) arises from the internal iliac arteries.

The lumbar arteries, after arising from the dorsal surface of the aorta, pass upward across the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, reach the intertransverse spaces between the lumbar transverse processes and divide into dorsal and ventral branches. The dorsal branches are larger. They supply spinal branches to reinforce the ventral spinal artery and the muscular branches to supply the muscles and skin over the back (loin) region of the body trunk. The ventral branches run ventrally through the fascia and muscles of the abdominal walls and supply the muscles and skin of the walls of the abdomen.

Animal’s response  to external stimuli is a behavior. Domestic animal behaviour and performance are correlated. Man’s intervention has led to huge modifications and modulations in animal behaviour patterns over ages but certain characters and normal behaviours of animals are needed to be expressed, otherwise may lead to abnormalities or performance loss. Animal freedoms also ensure certain basic freedoms to domesticated animals including freedom to express normal behaviour. With the developing concern over animal welfare among consumers, growers and animal activists, the need to ensure animal freedoms is call of the hour. Measuring animal welfare is a complex process which requires multidisciplinary approaches. There are four approaches to determine animal welfare viz, productivity, animal health and disease, physiology and behavior which are used individually or in combination.

Absolute advantage : This is the simplest yardstick of economic performance. If one person, firm or country can produce more of something with the same amount of effort and resources, they have an absolute advantage over other producers. Being the best at something does not mean that doing that thing is the best way to use your scarce economic resources. The question of what to specialise in—and how to maximize the benefits from international trade—is best decided according to comparative advantage. Both absolute and comparative advantage may change significantly over time.

Access to Health Care : 1) The degree to which individuals are inhibited or facilitated in their ability to gain entry to and to receive care and services from the health care system. Factors influencing this ability include geographic, architectural, transportation, and financial considerations, among others. 2) Entry to the health care system is dependent on the wants, resources, and needs that individuals bring to the care-seeking process. Ability to obtain wanted or needed services may be influenced by many factors, including travel distance, waiting time, available financial resources, and availability of a regular source of care.

Acquisition cost : The purchase cost of a drug to an agency, person or institution.

Adaptive expectations : A theory of how people form their views about the future that assumes they do so using past trends and the errors in their own earlier predictions. Contrast with rational expectations.

ABSTRACT

Queens of 4 post-emergence colonies of primitively eusocial wasp, Ropalidia marginata were observed for their propensity to acquire and handle foraged material on naturally occurring free foraging nest. The queens were inclined to acquire pulp loads than food loads. 

ABSTRACT

Activity patterns of Grey Jungle fowl, Gallus sonneratii were studied at Gudalur Range (9º 37’ N, 77º 16’ E) which is 23² km area in Theni Forest Division, Western Ghats, Tamilnadu from January to December 2005.

Introduction

The egg production in India is 75 billion and the broiler production is 4.2 million tonnes per annum. The growth rate of layer market is 6-7 percent per annum and broiler market is 8-10 percent per annum. The Indian poultry sector is valued at INR 1 lakh cr or USD 15.38 bn. Approx. 80 percent of egg production is contributed by commercial poultry farms, remaining comes from household/ backyard poultry. Backyard poultry plays a key role in supplementary income generation and family nutrition to the poorest of the poor. It is estimated that there are around 30 million farmers engaged in backyard poultry as per 19^th Livestock Census. Backyard poultry are being practiced for its inherent strengths. Free range birds reared by the farmers have the advantage of small body size, coloured plumage, broodiness to hatch chicks, adaptation to harsh climatic condition, lower diseases and production with least investment. The birds are scavenging in the backyard, supplemented by kitchen waste and are kept in low height houses for shelter using locally available materials. It helps to improve the nutritional status of rural poor and also improve the subsidiary income of the poor people. Such stocks make minimal use of land, labour and capital and integrate well into the backyard. Backyard poultry production system is self-sustaining because of minimal needs and can be afforded by poor people of the rural areas. The high yielding white feathered chicken varieties being reared in the intensive poultry farming are not suitable for backyard / free range backyard poultry farming due to the adverse climatic and high pathogen load prevailing in such rearing practices. Backyard poultry farming is an in-separable part of the poor tribal people and it will continue to be due to its advantages. Although backyard poultry production is not an occupation per se, it often supplements household income, primarily for poor families. Strengthening backyard poultry production may help overcome poverty and malnutrition in impoverished communities. However, the effect of climate change on these birds needs to be studied for its sustenance.

Biomedical signals provide valuable information about physiological conditions and support continuous health monitoring. This chapter introduces ECG, EEG, EMG, PPG, respiratory and blood-pressure signals and examines the challenges associated with their acquisition and interpretation. It discusses noise removal, filtering, normalization, resampling and artifact correction before presenting time-domain, frequency-domain, time–frequency, wavelet and nonlinear feature-extraction methods. Feature selection and dimensionality reduction are considered in relation to model accuracy and clinical interpretability. The chapter also explores machine learning, deep learning and hybrid approaches through applications involving arrhythmia detection, seizure prediction and wearable cardiovascular monitoring, highlighting their importance in intelligent and personalized healthcare.

Renal failure is one of the most commonly presented conditions in veterinary clinics world over. Although the potential for recovery is favorable, most animals die due to multisystemic effects induced by azotemia. Hence, extracorporeal removal of endogenous and exogenous toxins is very essential for expanding the window of recovery. Hemodialysis has been used in treatment of veterinary patients for the last 50 years and is still one of the most expensive and technically demanding treatment modalities in veterinary medicine. It is an advanced extracorporeal renal replacement therapy which has recently transitioned from a clinical curiosity to a more advanced standard for management of acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in companion animals particularly dogs and cats.

In addition to eliminating selective toxins that cause AKI, regardless of renal function, hemodialysis is also effective in the removal of pharmacokinetically active soluble uremic substances in CKD to enhance life expectancy and quality of life (Singh, 2021). Other common indications of hemodialysis in veterinary medicine include fluid overload, dysregulated body fluid composition, drug overdose or intoxications (Foster, 2020; Singh et al?, 2024). Medical management alone is often insufficient to control the clinical signs and metabolic abnormalities associated with uremia when AKI is severe or when there is involvement of acute on chronic kidney disease. Consequently, animals are at risk of death within a short therapeutic window, despite the potential reversibility of AKI and the improvement of life expectancy in CKD.

Tissue Doppler Imaging

Doppler echocardiography relies on detection of the shift in frequency of ultrasound signals reflected from moving objects. With this principle, conventional Doppler techniques assess the velocity of blood flow by measuring high-frequency, low amplitude signals from small, fast-moving blood cells. In TDI, the same Doppler principles are used to quantify the higher-amplitude, lower-velocity signals of myocardial tissue motion.

There are important limitations to TD interrogation. As with all Doppler techniques, TDI measures only the vector of motion that is parallel to the direction of the ultrasound beam. In addition, TDI measures absolute tissue velocity and is unable to discriminate passive motion (related to translation or tethering) from active motion (fiber shortening or lengthening). The emerging technology of Doppler strain imaging provides a means to differentiate true contractility from passive myocardial motion by looking at relative changes in tissue velocity.

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

Introduction

Though, India is bestowed with large livestock population (512.05 million) to which cattle buffaloes, goats and sheep contribute 190.90, 108.70, 135.2 and 65.07 numbers in millions, respectively (DADF, 2018), but at the same time, facing with a great shortage of crop residues, greens and concentrates for animal sustainability (NIANP, 2013). The shortage of these conventional feeds and fodders tropical and sub-tropical regions has already been documented and well recognized (Maneerat et al., 2015). The feed and fodder resources are gradually decreasing throughout India owing to many factors like shrinkage of common property resources and shift towards the cultivation of commercial crops etc. (Biradar and Kumar, 2013). Based on feed production and feed requirement calculated as above, India falls short by 219.2 Mt of green fodder and 226.73 MT of dry fodder (Earagariyanna et al., 2017). India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 percent and a dry fodder shortage of 23.5 percent and if the current situation continues then India's green fodder shortage will reach 66 percent and dry fodder will reach 25 percent by 2030 (Jitendra, 2017). This scenario demands the utilization of alternate non-conventional feed resources to sustain and economize livestock farming. The issues can be addressed by those unconventional resources like agricultural wastes which are widely available at low or zero cost and too with minimal treatment may serve as potential nutritional feeding material for animals.

Bougainvillea can grow in almost all kinds of edaphic conditions except in the water lodged regions. They grow well in the degraded soils (black cotton soils, red soils, crevices of rocks, to some extent in sandy soils, water stress conditions, high and low pH soils). Open sunny location is most suitable for best performance. Full sunshine helps for producing brilliant colours in masses. But young plants must be protected from heat. Kuzmina-Medova (1986) estimated that Bougainvillea require more than 2000 lux light for satisfactory growth. Different floricultural crops are propagated/multiplied by different means like sexual propagation (by seeds), asexual propagation (cuttings, layering, grafting, budding) and micropropagation. Bougainvillea is mostly propagated by vegetative propagation i.e. hard wood cuttings but it can also be propagated by different conventional propagation methods (Watson and Criley 1973, Iredell 1994, Srinivas 1995, Sindhu and Dagar 2015, Rajan et al., 1998, Tavares et al., 1998, Criley 1997, Pertuit 1999, Gilman 1999, Hackett et al., 1972, Schoellhorn and Alvarez 2002, Hamilton and Midcap 2003).

Artificial intelligence can detect subtle changes in animal health before they become apparent through conventional observation. This chapter examines machine learning, deep learning and predictive analytics for livestock disease prediction and diagnosis. Models use physiological signals, diagnostic images, behaviour patterns, environmental conditions and historical records to recognize abnormalities and estimate disease risk. Wearable sensors and IoT devices enable continuous monitoring and early-warning systems, supporting preventive veterinary care and outbreak management. AI-based detection can reduce mortality, treatment costs and production losses while improving decision-making. The chapter also evaluates challenges involving inconsistent data, model interpretability, rural infrastructure, technical accessibility and the practical implementation of diagnostic systems.

Use of animals in teaching is an inevitable process of learning in Veterinary and Animal Science colleges. Consequently, animals have to be handled for anatomical demonstration, surgical practice and used as experimental animals in various investigatory researches. The apprehensions and pain the animals have to suffer from these handlings (mishandlings) have brought the need to look for alternative ways to deal with animals and yet the purpose of learning about them does not diminish. Now-a-days, a growing emphasis is placed on minimizing the overall use of animals alongside advancements in science.

Amino acids are organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). However, sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) are also found in some cases. Amino acids are essential organic compounds that come together to create proteins, thus making them the fundamental building blocks of proteins. These biomolecules play vital roles in various biological and chemical processes within the human body and are essential for the growth and development of an individual.

Amino acids consist of an acidic group (-COOH), a basic group (-NH2 ), and a side chain (R) or a hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded to the carbon atom. The features of amino acids are due to the side chain because they differ only in their side chain. All amino acids have the same basic structure except proline, which has a cyclic structure.

Various forms of amino acids like alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) or delta (σ) form are found. The position of the amino group (-NH2 ) determines the form of the amino acid, i.e., if the NH2 group is attached to the α-carbon, it is called α-amino acid; if β-carbon, it is called β-amino acid, and so on. Mostly, α-Amino acids are found as the numbering of amino acids is done from the carboxylic group (-COOH).

Veterinary anatomy is a backbone as well as basic discipline in the veterinary sciences at large. The new entrants of the first professional year of B.V.Sc. & A.H. get more exposure in gross anatomy, histo- architect models and developmental anatomy of their current curriculum in our country.
Laboratory demonstration plays a vital role module in virtual teaching and learning program of their better understanding of the subject. The visualization and memorization is the basic requirement for thorough understanding of the anatomy of the individual in medical sciences. The various method of teaching have been debated because it has own limitations. To improve the anatomical understanding the traditional way of using cadavers but with current scenario of restrictive laws which implemented by Veterinary Council of India (VCI) and other organizations viz, SPCA, PFA, CPCSEA/IAEC etc. The scarcity of specimens which are invited the other alternative way of keeping and preserving the specimens for laboratory teaching. Under the unusual circumstances, the normal conventional method of cadaver/specimen/organ preservation should be replaced by the advanced technologies for easy and interesting to learn. In the traditional curriculum method of anatomical specimens taught and learned by formalin fixed cadavers/specimens/tissues. Since, the conventional method creates health problem due to extensive use of formalin as preservative chemical for cadaver preservation. This method of preservation causes wet slippery tissues, respiratory irritation, topical allergic reactions, and students should wear gloves to protect themselves from the fixative like formaldehyde (act as a potential carcinogenic agent). However, the anatomists have been challenged for an alternative laboratory teaching aids in near future. In recent past, the alternative method has developed teaching materials by the innovative novel techniques like Plastination, corrosion cast, pneumatic air dried specimen etc.

Introduction

Global warming is chiefly due to combustion of fossil fuels for multifarious energy needs, causing emission of greenhouse gases which trap energy from the sun leading to warming. These climate changes bring in variation in patterns and emergence of new zoonotic diseases to newer areas. These changes sometimes create conducive conditions for the propagation of insect vectors. History shows that most of the diseases have a direct correlation with climatic changes. The survival and propagation of pathogens are directly related to temperature and humidity etc. Extreme shifts in weather patterns resulting from global warming and climate changes adversely affect the ecosystem resulting in new diseases, re-emergence of earlier diseases including emergence of zoonotic diseases. The emergence of the new cholera strain O: 139 and outbreaks of Dengue, West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever in newer and non-endemic areas have been linked with the El Nino effect. The spread of disease agents may be facilitated by factors including environmental conditions, the presence and availability of suitable hosts, the arthropod's feeding behavior and host preferences.

Considering the economic importance of chlorophyll variegation in floriculture trade attempt was made for cytological, anatomical and biochemical analysis of chlorophyll variegated mutants for better and clear understanding of origin of chlorophyll variegation (Kirk and Tilney-Bassett 1967, Datta et al. 1995). Following chlorophyll variegated mutants and their respective original varieties were analysed –

‘Los Banos Beauty’ (LBB) : Original double bracted Bougainvillea with green leaf.