eChapters

1    Normal haemotological values

2    Blood biochemical values

Horse

The tensor fasciae latae is less extensive.

The superficial gluteus exists separately. It is ‘V’ shaped. It originates from the lateral angle of ilium (tuber coxae) and gluteal fascia and is inserted to the third trochanter. The middle gluteus is the largest of the three gluteal muscles and is very extensive. It originates from the aponeurosis of the longissimus dorsi, extends as far forwards up to first lumbar vertebra and is inserted in three heads, to the trochanter major, the crest ventral to trochanter major and the trochanteric ridge. The deep gluteus is smaller than the middle gluteus and is inserted to the convexity of the trochanter major.

The biceps femoris has an additional insertion to the femur on the rough surface near the trochanter tertius.

The semitendinosus arises from the transverse processes of the first two or three coccygeal vertebrae. The semimembranosus is larger and arises from the sacrosciatic ligament also.

The sartorius does not arise from the shaft of the ilium. The gracilis is not so extensively fused to its fellow at the origin.

The obturator internus has an iliac part- the pisiformis. Its tendon passes through the lesser sciatic foramen and hence does not unite with that of the obturator externus.

Articularis genu is absent

The venous drainage of hind limb begins from two digital venous plexuses, one for each digit, situated in the corium of the foot. From each of these plexuses extend three digital veins namely the dorsal common digital vein, the medial digital vein and the lateral digital vein. The digital veins in their upward course converge and form the metatarsal veins which in their turn continue upward in the leg region as tibial and popliteal veins and then in the thigh region as femoral vein which finally joins the external iliac vein as the chief vein of the hind limb.

Digital veins

The dorsal common digital vein arises from the corresponding digital plexus in the form of proper digital vein.The two proper digital veins ascend along the medial face of the corresponding digit and unite at about the middle of the interdigital space below the metatarso-phalangeal articulation (fetlock joint) and form the dorsal common digital vein. The later, thus formed, ascends through the interdigital space, crosses vertically the metatarso-phalangeal articulation and after reaching the distal extremity of the metatarsal bone continues upward as dorsal metatarsal vein.

The medial digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus ascends along the caudomedial aspect of the medial digit in company with the satellite artery, shares a branch each from the dorsal common digital and lateral digital veins, ascends the medial face of the fetlock joint and is then continued up as the medial plantar metatarsal vein.

The lateral digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus of the lateral digit passes upward in the interdigital space, communicates a branch to the dorsal common digital and medial digital veins and then ascends the lateral face of the fetlock joint and then is continued up as the lateral plantar metatarsal vein.

Fluid therapy plays an important role in emergency and critical care of  the malnourished, anemic, unhealthy and debilitated animals and as a supportive therapy in various disease conditions, accidents etc. The type, rate and quantity of fluids indicated for common abnormal conditions  in various animals are dealt in brief in  the following chapter.

Some of the Homeopathic remedies followed for common disease conditions of animals are listed in brief in the following chapter.

India is well known for its rich flora and fauna and is referred as one of the richest biodiversity nations of the world. The mammalian population of India is a combination of Palaearctic, Oriental and Afro-tropical fauna (Sahajpal et al. 2009). It is the home of 400 different mammalian species, 129 of these species are protected under Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (India) and an arbitrator to Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) (Nameer, 2015). Illegal trade of the wildlife for preparation of various products is the common issue in the conservation and is also responsible for regional extinction of the species.

Validity : The degree to which a measurement actually measures or detects what it is supposed to measure.

Value added : This usually refers to firms, where it is defined as the value of the firm’s output minus the value of all its inputs purchased from other firms. It is therefore a measure of the profit earned by a particular firm plus the wages it has paid. As a rule, the more value a firm can add to a product, the more successful it will be. In many countries, the main form of indirect indirect taxation is value-added tax, which is levied on the value created at each stage of production. However, it is paid, ultimately, by whoever consumes the finished product. Another definition of value added refers to the change in the overall economic value of a company. This takes into account changes in the combined value of its shares, assets, debt and other liabilities. Part of the pay of company bosses is often linked to how much economic value is added to the company under their management.

Value at risk : Value at risk models, widely used for risk management by banks and other financial institutions, use complex computer algorithms to calculate the maximum that the institution could lose in a single day’s trading. These models seem to work well in normal conditions but not, alas, during financial crises, which is arguably when it is most necessary to know how much value is at risk.

Lameness in dairy animals is a serious health problem all over the world causing substantial economic losses to dairy industry owing to reduced milk production, reduced reproductive performance, cost of treatment including medicines, increased risk of culling, death, and the development of other diseases. Lameness can be defined as a state of being unable to walk properly because of pain in the limbs or foot. The incidence of lameness in the dairy herd is variable (1 to 50%) depending on the farm. In USA its incidence varies from 13 to 55% (Hoffman et al., 2014; Cook et al., 2016). Lameness may be due to diseases of limb and/or hoof of infectious and/or noninfectious origin. Lameness usually affects hind limbs because of greater load of the body on hind limbs. A lame animal adjusts gait and posture depending on the origin of the pain (foot or upper limb). Clinical signs of lameness include changes in locomotion (e.g. decreased speed, decreased stride, length and tracking, increased abduction,

The world’s largest population of milch cattle lives in India. In 2020, there were almost 906 million tones of milk produced worldwide, with India being the top producer with a 22 percent share. Annual Growth Rate of milk production in 2019-20 in India was 5.69 per cent. Highest growth rate in milk production was found to be 14.31 per cent in Karnataka. In 2021, the Indian dairy market had a value of INR 13,174 billion.

In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made there under as amended from time-to-time.

The proper supply of feed and fodder is a requirement for the growth and development of the animals. Over the past few decades, there has been a considerable growth in milk production, with India now producing the most milk in the world (187.7 million tones in 2018–19). The main causes of India’s low milk yield are extrinsic (poor nutrition/feed management) as well as intrinsic (low genetic potential).

For the purpose of passing into the lower gastrointestinal tract and supplying the cow with vital amino acids, dairy bypass protein (UDP – undegraded protein) is a type of animal or plant-based protein that resists breakdown in the rumen. More metabolizable protein is made available by avoiding the rumen, assisting the cow in meeting her needs for amino acids for milk production and its constituent parts.

Letting the cow to release its milk so the dairy farmer can extract it for personal use or to sell is the procedure of milking. Consequently, it is not totally a natural process. The natural process must be manipulated by the dairy farmer to his advantage. Therefore, in order to control the natural process, one must first understand it. The process of producing milk from blood-derived basic materials by alveolar cells and storing it in the alveolar cavity is known as milk secretion. Only when the alveolar cavity is full and the pressure on the alveolar cells prevents further secretion does this continuous process come to an end.

Operation Flood and dairy cooperatives became India’s greatest rural employment programme, enabling the modernization of the dairy industry to a point from where it may take off to fulfill the need for milk and milk products within the nation as well as chances on the international market. An unorganized sector handles 80% of the milk a rural producer produces, and an organized sector handles the remaining 20%. It has been discovered that dairy cooperatives significantly contribute to reducing rural poverty by increasing rural milk production and marketing.

Cell culture has become one of the major tools used in the life sciences today. Viruses replicate only within the living cells. With the advent of cell culture technique, it has become easier to grow the viruses under in vitro condition (cell culture). Viruses are usually propagated in cell culture, embryonated hen’s egg, laboratory animals or natural hosts. In 1949, Enders, Weller and Robbins first reported that polio virus could be grown in cultured non-neural cells with the production of recognizable cytopathic changes. Although the cell culture technique has been evolved long back, it is only since the advent of antibiotics that cell culture became a matter of simple routine technique. Aseptic precautions are still essential, but the problems of contamination with bacteria, mycoplasma, fungi and yeasts can be checked by antibiotics and anti-fungal agents. The term in vitro literally means ‘in glass’ although today most cell culture is performed in or on plastic.

The best environment for growing cells is similar to  the conditions what they experience in vivo. A number of various environmental factors affecting the tissues are :
 
    (1)    Temperature : In living matter, complicated chemical reactions are happened at comparatively low temperature.  In most of the mammalian and avian tissues the temperature  is 37^ºC to 38.5^ºC. If the temperature is enhanced to 45^ºC, cells are destroyed within  an hour but survive 12-24 hours at 42^ºC. It is applicable to most of the fibroblasts and epithelial  types of cells arising  from  mammalian tissues. Some of the mammalian cells ( human skin epithelial cells)  and amphibian cells  prefer lower temperature but fish tissue will not survive beyond 20^ºC.

A number of animals are used in this country for conducting a variety of experiments. There has been a long felt need to prescribe guidelines and procedures for animal experimentation covering all aspects. The Central Government has constituted a Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) under PCA Act 1960 to ensure that experimental animals are not subjected to unnecessary pain or suffering before, during or after the performance of experiment on them. For this purpose the government has made “Breeding of and Experiment on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules, 1998 as amended during 2001 and 2006 to regulate the experimentation on animal. Under these provisions, the concerned establishments are required to get themselves registered with CPCSEA, form IAEC, get their Animal House Facilities inspected, and also get specific projects for research cleared by CPCSEA before commencing the research on animals. Further, breeding and trade of animals for such experimentation are also regulated under these Rules.

Duck (Anas platyrhynchos) is one type of indigenous poultry species, reared traditionally by the poor farmers for their livelihood. Maximum numbers of duck flocks concentrate in the paddy (Oryza sativa) growing and watershed areas of the state like Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and Tripura. Ducks rise on the free-range system with readily available fallen grains in paddy fields, insects, snails, earthworms, small fishes, and other aquatic materials. 

If the concentration of cells in suspension cell culture has reached to 7X10⁵ cells/ml, it is to be subcultured. Suspension cells are diluted to concentration of approximately 1X10⁵ cells/ml although it varies from cell line to cell line. So, to subculture into a 3 litre glass flask using 500 ml of suspension of cells, there is a need of 5X10⁷ cells. As the concentration of cells is 7X10⁵ cells/ml, there is a need of 71.4 ml of cells. Adherent cells are put in the culture flasks at a concentration of 5X10⁴ cells in a 25 cm² flask. For example, after trypsinization, the cells have been resuspended in 5 ml of medium and cell concentration is 1X10⁵ cells/ml or total number is 5X10⁵ cells. If one wants to put cells into two 25 cm² flasks each containing 5X10⁴ cells in 5 ml volume, there is a need of 1X10⁵ cells, which can be obtained from one ml of cell suspension (1X10⁵ cells/ml).

There are a number of different cell lines derived from human and animals. With the dramatic increase in numbers of cell lines, the risk of intraspecies and interspecies cross contamination rises proportionally. It is particularly a major problem in laboratories where many different cell lines of human and animal origin are handled at a time. The purity of the primary cell or continuous cell lines and species of its origin should be checked on a regular basis to authenticate the cell line identity. In the absence of such monitoring, inter and intra species cell line contamination are likely to occur in the laboratory resulting in loss of investigator’s time effort and resources. The advantages of working with a well defined cell line free from contaminating organisms would appear obvious.