eChapters

Introduction
Urban sustainability has become a critical focus as the global population increasingly concentrates in cities. With over 56% of the world’s population residing in urban areas, cities are significant drivers of economic growth and innovation but also contribute disproportionately to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and social inequities. Urban sustainability aims to balance economic, social, and environmental dimensions, ensuring that cities are livable, resilient, and capable of meeting the needs of current and future generations. Information Technology (IT) is pivotal in advancing urban sustainability by enabling smarter resource management, reducing environmental footprints, and fostering inclusive and equitable development.

Key Points

• With the aid of microorganisms, ruminants typically use NPN to synthesis proteins for nutritional needs.

• When there is an excess of urea in the body, ammonia is produced excessively, which can be harmful.

• The majority of clinical indicators are neurological in nature, and their severity varies depending on a number of variables.

• Ruminal environment acidification to stop excessive ammonia generation and absorption; symptomatic therapy is advised.

Introduction

In addition to being a widely utilized fertilizer for crops, urea is frequently used in animal feeds as a low-cost protein substitute [1]. The previously mentioned explanations explain the reports of urea toxicity in ruminants. These animals may use non-protein nitrogen (NPN) like urea to create ammonia, which is subsequently used to synthesize proteins that partially meet their nutritional needs. This is made possible by the urease enzyme and ruminal microorganisms. On the other hand, rapid overconsumption of NPN leads to excessive ammonia generation and toxicity. This chapter aims to provide an overview of some of the most frequent causes of urea poisoning, clinical symptoms to watch out for, and associated treatments.

Key Points

• The most commonly cystitis and pyelonephritis occurs in farm and companion animals after parturition.

• Hematuria, pyuria, and stranguria are common presenting clinical symptoms;

• In acute situations, a prolonged course of treatment (two to four weeks) with the administration of the proper antimicrobials is usually successful.

Introduction

Both farm animals and companion animals frequently suffer from urinary infections, which are difficult to diagnose. In cows, urine testing is more helpful in excluding the illness if it shows any pus or germs (in females), and f inding the urethral calculus that is causing the urinary obstruction can be done by palpating the bladder using a rectum examination and palpating the urethral tube (in males). Because of the shorter urethra in females and the associated uterine infection that occurs during or after parturition, females are more likely to get urinary tract infections.

Introduction

In addition to role of iron oxidation in commercial point of view there are certain implication of iron oxidation on environment. Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) is one of the example of environmental pollution. Coal and various metal ores are enclosed in geological formation of reduced nature. Coal, is often associated with pyrite (FeS₂).When mining activities expose this material to atmospheric oxygen, a combination of auto oxidation and microbial iron and sulfur oxidation produces large amounts of acids. The iron-rich acidic mine drainage kills aquatic life and renders the contaminated stream unsuitable as a water supply or for recreational use.

Introduction

North East India constitutes the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim which reflects ecological and cultural contrasts between the hills and the plains. It is one of the most biodiversity regions in the world, with more than a hundred and fifty tribes forming a melting pot of variegated cultural mosaic of people and races constitute a vital component in this region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
 
More than 70% people of the region are engaged in agriculture while rice is the staple food crop (Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010). The farmers from different ethnic diversity of the region have developed their own systems of cultivation of various crops (Islam et al. 2004). These indigenous traditional knowledge systems are quite endemic to this region (Deka et al. 2006).

ABSTRACT

Probably since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have recognized the value of rows of trees/ shrubs planted in the farm (called as Agroforestry) which offers environmental protection, crop and livestock production and reduce the soil health hazards. The role of agroforestry is immense in the undulating terrains like North East India, rain fed area like Central India or the problem soils in general. Even though research and extension work is on the way to increase the trees out side the forest, the information and knowledge on best tree + crop combination is either scarce or limited to regions in the form of research articles, books or  journals. The recent scope of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its applicability due to its easy, fast and any where accessibility have opened the window of opportunity towards the scientific agroforestry and farm forestry developments. One such means of ICT is through the availability of useful databases and websites on agroforestry.

Information Technology can play an important role in disseminating agricultural information to the farmers by using various multimedia sources. Farmers are more desirous and anxious to get quick, accurate and authentic information in the changing scenario of agriculture at local and at global levels. Dissemination of the required and recent agricultural information to the farmers in scattered villages at the variegated geographical situation in India is very difficult task. Transfer of technology to farmers is not a one time exercise because new farm technology is being constantly evolved. A continuous flow of technologies in an appropriate manner is vital to provide quick benefit for the development of the farmers. There has been a technological explosion in the field of agriculture. This demands that the farmer has to know all aspects of technology prior to its adoption. Hence Interactive Multimedia Module (IMMM) has potential to reach the unreached.

Policy influence requires credible evidence, a clear understanding of decision-making processes and communication tailored to relevant audiences. This chapter explains how extension research, programme experience and stakeholder knowledge can be converted into evidence for policy change. It discusses identifying policy problems, assessing alternatives, setting advocacy objectives, recognizing policy champions, building coalitions and selecting appropriate routes of influence. Policy briefs, research reports, dialogue platforms, advisory committees, social media and ICT-based communication are examined as practical tools. The chapter also reviews global extension-policy experiences, helping readers understand how institutional, political and socioeconomic contexts shape policy decisions and how evidence-based engagement can support effective agricultural reforms.

Definition of Utility
Utility is the ability of a good or service to satisfy human wants and needs in economics. It is an important concept as it represents the satisfaction experienced by a consumer from consuming a good or service
Utility characteristics
1. Measuring satisfaction, benefit, or happiness from a good or service is difficult.
2. Economists have devised ways to represent and measure utility in terms of economic choices that can be quantified.
3. Total Utility (TU): The aggregate sum of satisfaction or benefit gained from consuming a given amount of goods or services (e.g., drinking three glasses of water provides more satisfaction than just one).
4. Marginal Utility (MU): The additional satisfaction gained from each extra unit of consumption (e.g., the first glass of water gives maximum satisfaction compared to each additional glass).
5. Total utility usually increases as more goods are consumed.
6. Marginal utility typically decreases with each additional unit consumed, demonstrating the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility.

Introduction

A concept focused on crop and livestock production with minimal environmental impact has emerged as a result of the paradigm shift in Indian agriculture from traditional to sustainable agriculture. This concept also supports the farm economy and helps farmers improve their tactics and quality of life. This has sparked farmers’ interest in learning traditional technology skills that draw on local knowledge that people have acquired from their ancestors to address issues in agriculture and activities associated with natural processes. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), which is a component of using natural products to address agricultural problems and integrate activities, has attracted interest since the concept of sustainable agriculture began to emerge in the Indian state of agriculture in the late 1980s. ITK is regional knowledge unique to a particular culture or community.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the world is facing a number of major global challenges. On the development side one of these challenges is the establishment of sustainability. In the context of agricultural development, a new agenda has been set to achieve the goals of producing and disseminating economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound technologies that are geographically sound. , even local agricultural schools cannot teach such knowledge because of its size and diversity (Pereira, 1993).

Validity: The concept of validity can be applied to every aspect of the research  process. In its simplest form, validity refers to the appropriateness of each step in finding out what is set out to. However, the concept of validity is more associated with measurement procedures.

Validity : The degree to which a measurement actually measures or detects what it is supposed to measure.

Value added : This usually refers to firms, where it is defined as the value of the firm’s output minus the value of all its inputs purchased from other firms. It is therefore a measure of the profit earned by a particular firm plus the wages it has paid. As a rule, the more value a firm can add to a product, the more successful it will be. In many countries, the main form of indirect indirect taxation is value-added tax, which is levied on the value created at each stage of production. However, it is paid, ultimately, by whoever consumes the finished product. Another definition of value added refers to the change in the overall economic value of a company. This takes into account changes in the combined value of its shares, assets, debt and other liabilities. Part of the pay of company bosses is often linked to how much economic value is added to the company under their management.

Value at risk : Value at risk models, widely used for risk management by banks and other financial institutions, use complex computer algorithms to calculate the maximum that the institution could lose in a single day’s trading. These models seem to work well in normal conditions but not, alas, during financial crises, which is arguably when it is most necessary to know how much value is at risk.

Value Addition in Livestock Product

Mankind has been utilizing different animal species from the dawn of civilization for a variety of purposes viz. production of milk, meat, wool, egg and leather etc. These products are either useful in raw form or in value added form. Value-addition describes economically adding value to the product by changing its place, time and form to characteristics that are more preferred in the market place. Another way of explaining is that what happens when you take a basic product and increase the value of that product, usually the price by adding extras in the manufacturing process, or by tacking on extra products and/or services.

This chapter introduces value addition as a means of converting eggs from a commodity into convenient, shelf-stable or specialized food products. It covers ready-to-eat eggs, hard-cooked eggs, pickled and marinated eggs, egg-based snacks, specialty products, emulsified products and mayonnaise. Region-specific and ethnic egg products of India are also discussed. The chapter introduces product development, sensory evaluation, packaging and retort processing. It emphasizes the commercial potential of value-added products while recognizing the associated requirements for food safety, processing control, market acceptance and appropriate packaging.

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.

Traditional Media for Advertising

1. Print Media

Types of Print Media for Advertising

Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use for advertising. The most common types include

1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.

Introduction

A collaborative environment is necessary to enable a nurturing future for any business or entrepreneurship to succeed. While ventures may or may not have benefitted from collaborations, it is undoubtedly a step highly considered and regarded in any kind of field be it research, business, partnership between organizations or any international collaborations. The parties involved in these collaborations/partnerships share resources and risks as per agreed. The various kinds of models are discussed in this chapter ahead.

Venture Capital

Venture capital refers to financing that comes from companies or individuals in the business of investing in young, privately held businesses. They provide capital to young businesses in exchange for an ownership share of the business. Venture capital firms usually don’t want to participate in the initial financing of a business unless the company has management with a proven track record. Generally, they prefer to invest in companies that have received significant equity investments from the founders and are already profitable. Venture capital investors also prefer businesses that have a competitive advantage or a strong value proposition in the form of a patent, a proven demand for the product, or a very special (and protectable) idea. Startups with innovative ideas and technologies that have a great potential for wealth creation, but a high risk of failure might receive funding from venture capital. Typically, venture financing comes in the form of equity shares or a claim on equity that may arise in the future, such convertible debt, allowing the venture capital firm to acquire a portion of the company. New businesses are often the focus of venture capital, and Georges Doriot, a professor at Harvard Business School, is widely regarded as the “Father of Venture Capital.”

Verbal communication-definition and meaning-Verbal vs Oral communication - Types-Styles-Barriers to effective verbal communication

Meaning

Verbal communication takes place directly between the superiors and juniors in organizations and between farmers and extension functionaries in the field and is often known as face to face communication. It takes the form of talks, a public address, verbal discussions, telephonic talks, telecommunications and other forms such as audio-visual aids speeches and orders, holdings of meetings and conferences, lectures, social get-togethers, training sessions, public address systems, museums, counseling etc.

Definition

The Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas and opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and conversations.

Verbal vs Oral communication

Verbal Communication - Oral: It consists of spoken messages which include exchange of ideas, questions or comments. Few examples of verbal (oral) communication are face-to-face conversations, group discussions, counselling, interview, radio, television, calls, etc. Man is the only privileged species which can use language. Language is mostly used in speech and writing comes later. Oral communication has much wide and acceptable use when compared to written communication. As a part of everyday life, in informal relations or formal organization, we communicate more orally than in writing. Oral communication is a building block of human relations. Without oral communication, any interaction is lifeless. Thus, its importance cannot be ignored.

Verbal Communication - Written: This type of verbal communication does not require speech or sound. Though technically, written communication is nonverbal, it falls under this category as it includes the use of words and language. Few examples of verbal (written) communication are books, letters, text, newspapers, etc.

1.0. Objectives

• To make out the definition of verb and its kinds
• To enable the students to show the correct usage of verbs
• To train learners to identify appropriate verbs for subjects
• To practise to use different types of verbs suitable, in sentence, to express the intension

2.0 What is a Verb

“A verb is a word that implies an action, state of being”. It is a very important part of a sentence as it operates sentences in particular tense. It is called the soul of the English language.

3.0 Kinds of Verb

To understand the kinds of the verb see the chart given below-

Introduction

Earthworms have been exists on the earth from over 20 million years. Decomposition of organic material that may be plant or animal origin by earthworms is called vermicompost. The earthworm is a natural resource of fertility of soil. Earthworm is lives in the soil. They feed on decaying organic material. After digestion, the undigested material moves through the alimentary canal of the earthworm; and a thin layer of oil is deposited on the castings. This layer corrodes over a period of 2 months. Although, the plant nutrients are immediately available, they are slowly released to last longer period. The digestive process in the alimentary canal of the earthworm can transforms organic wastes to natural fertilizer. Vermicompost is an odorless, clean, organic material containing adequate quantities of N, P, K and several micronutrients essential for plant growth. Vermicompost is an ideal nutrient source for organic farming. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both industrial and domestic scenery because as compared with conventional composting, it provides a way to treat organic wastes more quickly. It generates a product which has a lower salinity levels, and therefore more beneficial to plant mediums. Vermicompost is nutrient rich organic fertilizers which also contain water soluble nutrients and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy to absorb for plants. Worm castings are nothing but organic fertilizers because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms. Plants need least efforts to obtain these nutrients from vermicompost. The worm digestive system creates environment that allow certain species of microbes to flourish to help for creating the “living soil environments for plants”.

The chemical changes in organic wastes undergo include deodorizing and neutralizing. The pH of the casting is 7 (neutral) and the casting is odorless. The worm casting contains bacteria, so microbial activity is promoted. Excellent quality of compost can be produced in ambient temperature condition in a short period of time by using proper species of earthworm. The earthworms promote faster decomposition of organic material as compared to compost pits without earthworms.

Abstract
Vermicomposting, the process of producing organic manure through earthworm activity, offers a sustainable solution for enhancing soil fertility and agricultural productivity. Vermicompost, often termed "Black Gold," is rich in plant nutrients, growth-promoting hormones, enzymes, and beneficial microorganisms, improving soil's physicochemical and biological properties. In Chhirauta village, Banda district, a group of eight farmers adopted vermicomposting as a livelihood, producing 20 tons of vermicompost and 1 ton of vermiculture annually after training from Banda University of Agriculture & Technology in 2019. By incorporating leguminous crop residues and maintaining optimal moisture (45- 65%) and neutral pH, they enhanced compost quality. Vermiwash, a nutrient-rich liquid byproduct, is also produced and sold. This initiative not only addresses waste management but also promotes organic farming, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and provides economic opportunities for rural youth. The success of this model highlights vermicomposting's potential for agri-entrepreneurship and sustainable agriculture.
Keywords: Vermicompost, Vermiwash, Organic Farming, Earthworms, Soil Fertility, Agri-Entrepreneurship, Sustainable Agriculture, Waste Management, Black Gold, Chhirauta Village