eChapters

• General considerations

 • Volume

 • Colour

 • Reaction

 • Concentration of spermatozoa

 • Motility

 • Live and dead count

 • Microbiological examination

Key Points

• Neonatal diarrhea can be lethal without treatment.

• Administer aggressive fluid and electrolyte therapy to address newborn diarrhea.

• Fecal examination and/or culture findings can help control diarrhea.

• Ringer lactate is the preferred fluid.

• There is a high association between animal age and the presence of the causal factor for diarrhea.

Introduction

Diarrhea is one of the symptoms of a variety of medical problems. Diarrhea is characterized by an increased frequency of defecation and stools of varied consistency, which may have an increased concentration of water or a decrease in dry matter content. Increased peristaltic movement causes an increase in caudal flow of ingesta/GIT content, resulting in a decrease in intestinal transit time and thus diarrhea. Diarrhea is lethal in children; therefore, preventing f luid and electrolyte losses prior to diagnosis is critical to saving lives.

Early research in field of semen storage and delivery systems was conducted in USA. The straw technique for the storage of frozen semen was evolved by work of French, Danish and German workers whereas the pellet system of storage of semen was devised by Japanese scientists. The different packing systems of frozen semen are:

    9.1    Ampoule method
    9.2    Pellet method
    9.3    Straw method

9.1 Ampoule Method
In this method the semen is placed in a glass ampoule and is subsequently sealed and frozen in liquid nitrogen. The ampoule is thawed just before insemination and is then cut open. The semen is withdrawn into glass catheter and used for AI. Since the ampoule is sealed there is no risk of contamination during storage. The relevant details can be marked on the ampoule.

Key Points

• Fluid therapy is crucial for saving dehydrated animals.

• Fluid therapy should be administered within the first 4-6 hours of treatment.

• Ringer lactate is the recommended fluid for diarrhea and enteritis.

• Fluid loss of 4–6 % does not require therapy and does not show any clinical indications.

Introduction

Dehydration is defined as an excessive loss of water and electrolytes from the body (usually due to vomiting and/or diarrhea) or an insufficient intake of water. The body loses water through respiration; however, the skin, face, and/or urine can also cause dehydration. Diarrhea (the loss of fluid and electrolytes from the gastrointestinal tract) is invariably accompanied by dehydration. Chapter 13 provides a brief overview of diarrhea and how it is managed. Dehydration causes lethargy in the patient and, if handled, can have catastrophic consequences for the kidneys and/or other internal organs. Death may occur if the body loses 40% of its water.

Key Points

• Vomiting is a common sign of various conditions, including irritants and toxins, kidney or liver failure, pancreatitis, neurological disorders, and digestive issues. Common in dogs and cats.

• Can be fatal in horses with acute stomach dilatation.

• Ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats) vomit by regurgitating ruminal material through their mouths.

Introduction

Vomiting is the violent ejection of stomach and, on occasion, proximal small intestine contents through the mouth caused by fierce contractions of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. It is the most prevalent protective disruption in the gastrointestinal system. Vomiting has three distinct phases: nausea, retching, and vomiting. A sense of nausea may or may not cause vomiting. Nausea is scientifically defined as sadness, salivation, lip-licking, and increased swallowing motions in animals. Retching is caused by a series of spasmodic respiratory movements involving the closed glottis. Vomiting is characterized by repeated thoracic invaginations of the abdominal esophagus and cardia. Projectile vomiting often occurs when an animal begins to vomit without going through three stages.

Structure of matter: every structure is made up of elements. Elements can join together to make compounds. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule. The periodic table gives details of all elements.

Nucleus: the center of atom containing protons and neutrons and hence almost whole mass of the atom. 

Atom: the smallest units of matter composed of electrons are negatively charged, protons have a positive charged and neutrons are neutral. If there are more electrons atom will be negatively charged, if there are more protons it will be positively charged. The total charge of electrons is equal to protons and hence the atom is electrically neutral.

Gross evaluation is generally done to get a rough idea of the quality of semen and to assess the semen producing capacity of the bull. This also gives a fairly good idea about the reproductive health and any pathological conditions of the semen donor. The following are recorded under gross evaluation of semen:

    11.1    Color and appearance of semen
    11.2     Semen Volume
    11.3    pH of semen
    11.4     Semen consistency/ Semen density
    11.5     Presence of foreign matter
    11.6     Gross motility

Key Points

• Seizures are common in dogs and cats but uncommon in larger animals.

• Animal seizures can be induced by several circumstances.

• Idiopathic epilepsy is the leading cause of seizures.

• Rapidly rising core body temperature and metabolic alterations lead to fatal outcomes.

Introduction

A seizure is defined as any rapid and uncontrollable movement of the body induced by aberrant neuronal activity in the brain. Seizures are common in dogs and cats, but uncommon in larger animals. Seizures can be severe, affecting the entire body, or moderate, affecting only a section of the body. The pet may or may not be conscious or responsive, and it may urinate.

Seizures are usually brief (1-2 minutes) and self-limiting; however, some animals may experience protracted activity (more than 5 minutes). Seizures that persist longer than 3 to 5 minutes might cause serious complications such as pulmonary or brain edema. Death is caused by a sudden rise in body temperature and metabolic alterations that reach a life-threatening threshold.

To understand how radiographs are produced by using X-rays, an understanding of how photons of diagnostic range can interact with matter is necessary in five possible mechanism of interaction:
    ·    Coherent scattering.
    ·    Photoelectric absorption.
    ·    Compton scattering.
    ·    Pair production.
    ·    Photodisintegration.

Key Points

• Shock occurs when the circulatory system fails to provide adequate blood flow to essential organs.

• Oxygen deficiency is a clinical condition caused by insufficient oxygen delivery or tissue incapacity to use oxygen effectively.

• Successful shock management requires early recognition, aggressive monitoring, and appropriate interventions.

Introduction

Shock is a complex physiological syndrome marked by widespread circulatory irregularities that result in inadequate tissue perfusion. In other words, it is a clinical condition caused by an insufficient delivery of oxygen to tissues or the tissues' inability to correctly use oxygen. It is a complication of trauma and diseases typically seen in emergency rooms, such as heart failure, inflammatory conditions (e.g., pancreatitis), and sepsis. In shock, tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery are insufficient to support the tissues' baseline metabolic demands. Whatever the cause, shock is distinguished by reduced blood flow, which is typically accompanied by low blood pressure (hypotension).

A tube rating chart is a guide regarding operational limits of the X-ray tube for single and multiple exposures and permissible heat load of the anode and the tube housing. It is an essential component for obtaining diagnostic X-ray examinations is a consistent way.
 
The tube rating chart provides important information on the maximum safe exposure time that can be used with specific mA and kV setting. If lower than designated exposure times are used, tube damage may occur. The size of the anode focal spot determines the rating of the tube because size controls the amount of energy it can absorbs and convert into X-rays and heat. Therefore, one should never use an X-ray chart formulated for another X-ray machine (even those made by the same manufacture) without making appropriate changes. Knowledge of three charts is important to extend tube life and includes tube rating chart, anode heat cooling chart and housing cooling chart.

Key Points

• There are several causes of abdominal pain.

• It is difficult to diagnose in animals, but behavioral changes may indicate abdominal pain.

• Evaluate and treat abdominal pain promptly to avoid life-threatening situations.

Introduction

Abdominal discomfort is typically acute (onset occurs suddenly), although it can also be persistent. It could be caused by inflammation of the abdominal wall or organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Diagnosis is difficult due to the variety of etiologies involved. Patients with stomach pain demonstrate changes in behavior and posture. Treatment should be based on etiology and the underlying cause.

X-ray photons are produced as a result of electrons hitting metal while extremely rapidly moving at high speed. This is achieved through the application of an electric current to a cathode (negative electrode) via a high voltage power source (electricity) which enables electrons to be released from the cathode into the X-ray tube. These electrons, being negatively charged, are attracted to the anode (positive electrode or target). When the electrons strike the metallic target (anode) in the tube, X-rays and heat are produced. Basically the process of producing an X-ray involves a source that produces X-rays and radiating them through a body or object, where they are absorbed at different rates until they are detected by a sensitive film or cassette. It should be mentioned at this point that most of the energy of the electrons is not converted into X-rays but is dissipated as heat. In fact 99% of the energy dissipated in the target is lost as heat, and only 1% is converted to X-ray energy.

The bacterial load in the semen samples is estimated by standard plate count method. The bacterial contaminants of semen have been a major concern for most of the frozen semen production laboratories as it adversely affects semen quality and hence subsequent fertility. There exists a significant negative correlation of bacterial load and sperm livability, motility and in vitro fertility tests. Macrophages and polymorphonuclear granulocytes, which form the first line of defense against these microorganisms, produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill these microorganisms. ROS, however, is also released outside these cells and may react with molecules and cells such as spermatozoa in their vicinity. The cellular antioxidants, present mostly in the cytoplasm, are scanty and inadequate to counteract this ROS as the sperm cell cytoplasm is very small (20 µm3) and mostly distributed in the midpiece. Therefore, semen samples with minimum bacterial load are expect to give better results on insemination.

To set up of an X–ray (radiology) section following points should be considered while planning:
 
    1.    Anticipated present work load (number of cases and species of animals to be X-rayed) and future requirement in the next 10-15 years.
    2.    Financial resources available.
    3.    Type of equipment to be installed for radiographic work.
    4.    Requirement of radiation safety enforcing agencies e.g. of Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai.
The overall set up of radiology section should consider the following requirements:

18.1 Estrus Detection
18.1.1 Estrus Detection on the Basis of External Signs

The following signs are suggestive estrous period in cattle and buffaloes

1.    Partial inappetance due to excitement

2.    Drop in milk yield

3.    Restless ness of varying degree

4.    Frequent micturition with raised tail and crouching the back and lumbar region

5.    Marked bellowing

6.    Swollen vulvar lips- Due to swelling the wrinkles on vulvar lips disappear. The vulvar lips appear turgid and stand prominently.

7.    Congestion of vulvar lips 

8.    A clear, shiny mucus discharge seen at the vulvar lips extending down to perineal region and smearing the hind quarters. The discharge is stingy, having good consistency and no odour.

The process of converting the frozen semen to liquid state while retaining maximum semen quality is called thawing. The process of thawing is as important as freezing as there is equal probability of loss of semen quality in freezing and thawing. Therefore, great care should be taken while thawing to insure that it is done with minimum loss of sperm quality. There are two methods of thawing:

1.    Rapid thawing

2.    Slow thawing

The effectiveness of each method of thawing depends upon the extender composition and freezing procedure. With any thawing procedure, the recommendations of the semen supplier should be followed. The thumb rule is that rapid freezing rates require rapid thawing.

A diagnostic radiograph is defined as one showing the tissues adequately penetrated, sharply outlined, and the variations in tissue opacity sufficiently demonstrated. An ideal diagnostic radiograph should have excellent detail, correct density and proper scale of contrast. The sharpness of the image determines the detail or definition of an image. There are two factors in radiographic quality control, viz: photographic and the geometric effect.  Density, contrast and detail are photographic aspects of radiographic quality. Detail and distortion are geometric aspects of radiographic quality. Because a radiograph is a two-dimensional (2-D) image of a three-dimensional (3-D) object, the appearance of a radiographic image varies with the patient’s orientation in relation to the primary X-ray beam. 

One of the most important pieces of information in the field of  X-rays is a radiographic technique chart. If one select exposure factors from a good rating chart, consistent radiographic examinations of diagnostic quality will be obtained. In addition, there will be a saving of X-ray films because waste from repeated exposures will be avoided.

There are several types of techniques chart that can be formulated, each type must be formulated with the goat of maximum potential of a particular X-ray machine. Perhaps the most popular type of technique chart used by veterinarians is a variable kilovoltage technique chart. A variable mA second chart is probably more appropriate for the most powerful X-ray machine. However, combination of variable kilovoltage and mAs technique chart is best. Such charts take into consideration the need to adopt a technique chart for different body systems, such as a thoracic and abdominal study, as well as examination involving the musculoskeletal system. The principle of how to prepare a variable kilovoltage technique chart along with an example of such a chart is given.

The equipments used in artificial insemination should be clean and sterilized. The use of unsterilized equipments in AI causes the spread of infection in the herd and infertility. Rinse the equipments with tap water immediately after use and then lukewarm detergent solution. The detergent used for washing the AI equipments should be non corrosive. Use of corrosive detergents will reduce half-life of the plastic and rubber wares. Wash thoroughly with tap water till the equipments become grease free and perfectly clean. Then rinse in distilled water at least thrice. Use of distilled water does not leave any salt residues on articles after drying.