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Sub estrus (Weak or Silent Estrus) is a condition in which there are normal cyclical changes in the reproductive organs of a cow but the heat signs are not exhibited to a level of intensity as in normal cows leading to failure of estrus detection by a farmer. This condition is common during post partum period. It is a common reproductive problem in cattle affecting the productivity and economics of a cow due to increase in inter-calving interval, production loss, treatment expenses etc.

Anoestrus in cows is a condition in which there is absence of observable estrus signs. Anoestrus in cattle is suspected when estrus in not expressed by the female animal or in case the farmer fails to detect it. Among reproductive problems, it is one of the most commonly occurring conditions in cattle. It affects the production and economics of a cow to a great extent and the economic losses occur due to increase in inter-calving interval, poor net calf crops, loss of production, expenses incurred on treatment etc. It is caused by multiple factors including mostly inadequate or unbalanced nutrition, environmental stress, uterine or ovarian pathologies and poor managemental practices.

Diagnosis

• Rectal examination of animal. The ovaries are small and smooth. Should be confirmed by repeated examinations at 10 days interval.

• Ultrasound examinations at regular intervals can be done to diagnose and confirm anestrous.

• Progesterone estimations at intervals of 10 days would aid in confirmation. Low progesterone levels at both times indicate true anestrous.

A cow is called repeat breeder when it has failed to conceive even after three or more number of services, has normal estrus cycle length, no abnormal vaginal discharge, no palpable abnormality in the reproductive tract, has calved at least once before and is less than ten years of age. Repeat breeding is one of the most important infertility problem faced by field veterinarians.

Causes

1) Fertilization failure

2) Early embryonic death

Main Points that Need to be Known by a Farmer About Repeat Breeding Cow

• Signs of estrus like vaginal discharge and its color, bellowing, mounting etc

• Time of estrus as observed by owner (morning, evening etc)

• Vaginal discharge whether clear or mucopurulent/purulent

• Duration of estrus

• Inter-estrous interval

• Number of inseminations

4.1. Physical characteristics

4.1.1. Colour, number of bands and hair profile

The physical characteristics of hair like colour, number of bands and hair profile showed huge variations in the same individual from region to region particularly in the domestic animal species. So, these features of hair cannot be considered as an important tool for species identification from hair. These findings are in accor dance with the observations of Sarkar et al. (2011). Who mentioned that the coat of mammalian species varies with season, habitat and sex of the individuals.

The present study on trichology of domestic and wild animals was conducted in the Postgraduate laboratory of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Histol ogy, Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur. The study was undertaken with an aim of species differentiation from the guard hair of domestic as well as wild animals. The hair samples were collected from a total of eight domestic animal species and six wild animal species. Six animals from each species were studied and only three animals studied from the Sambar species as only three animals from this species was reported for post-mortem to the Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur within the period of research.

Hausman (1920a) worked on the microscopic structure of hair from the commercial fur. The hair samples of 27 different species of animals were used for the study. He described in detail the structural features of guard hair. He classified medulla of hair into 4 different types as discontinuous, continuous, fragmental and interrupted on the basis of composition of medullar cells. He also classified the cuticular scale pattern into two types as imbricate interrupted and imbricate coronal. He mentioned in detail the methods for the preparation of slides for the study of microscopic structures of hair. He also studied the cortex and pigment granules.

India is well known for its rich flora and fauna and is referred as one of the richest biodiversity nations of the world. The mammalian population of India is a combination of Palaearctic, Oriental and Afro-tropical fauna (Sahajpal et al. 2009). It is the home of 400 different mammalian species, 129 of these species are protected under Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (India) and an arbitrator to Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) (Nameer, 2015). Illegal trade of the wildlife for preparation of various products is the common issue in the conservation and is also responsible for regional extinction of the species.

Site of incision: Make a midventral incision on the neck from larynx up to thoracic inlet then make ventrodorsal incision from both ends of this incision up to mid dorsal aspect of neck region.

Site of incision: Make two incisions at mid-lateral aspect at base of the tail join them dorso-ventrally and reflect the skin caudally up the 4-5 inches.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hindlimb from stiffle joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at stiffle joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on plantero-medial aspect of limb.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hind-limb from stifle joint to 3rd digit. Joins, the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect at stifle joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb.

Site of incision: Abduct the hind limb well apart and remove the skin covering the medial aspect of thigh. To obtain this make an incision longitudinally along the entire length of pelvic symphysis. From both ends of this incision make vertical incision up to medial aspect of stifle joint and joins distal end of these vertical incision together and remove the skin to expose the muscles of medial aspect of thigh region. To expose deeper muscles incise the vertebral attachment of biceps femoris, reflect it caudally by incising muscle close to stifle than reflect middle gluteus muscle dorsocranially and observe the deeper layer of muscles.

Site of incision: Make an incision from distal end of cranial margin of stifle joint to coxal tuber and extend it dorsally up to mid dorsal line of the body. Make another incision at mid caudal of thigh from stifle region to tuber ischii and extend it to mid dorsal up to the base of the tail and then connects the distal ends of both previous incisions and reflect the skin up to mid dorsal line of the body.

Site of incision: Make a transverse incision below the anus between lateral margins of tuber ischia. Then from each end of this incision make an oblique incision caudo-cranially so that these join midventrally each other between the thighs. Remove the triangular flap of skin to expose the region.

Site of incision: Remove the abdominal viscera to expose the sublumber region.

Site of incision: Make a dorsoventral incision along caudal border of last rib up to mid ventral region of abdomen and another incision along the coxal tuber up to mid ventral region of abdomen. Joins the above two incision mid ventrally and reflect the skin up to mid dorsal aspect of lumber region.

Site of incision: Cut the skin over the back and loin region by making cranio caudal straight incision along the proximal part of 1st rib and the lateral margin of transverse process of lumbar vertebrae up to wing of sacrum and reflect the skin to mid dorsal aspect of back and loin.

Site of incision: Make a midventral incision on the sternum from cranial to caudal than from both ends of this incision make cranial incisions along the caudal border of shoulder and arm region to mid dorsal aspect of back and along last rib to mid dorsal aspect of back, respectively. Reflect the skin flap from ventral aspect to mid dorsal region of back.

Site of Incision

Make an incision around the eyeball at the margin of orbit.Then remove the supraorbital process by cutting dorsal and ventral end to access inside the orbit. Remove all the attachments of eyeball from osseous orbit through carefull dissection. Then remove all the extraoccular and periorbital fat to expose the muscles of eyeball.

Site of incision

Remove the skin of intermandibular space.Then remove one of the rami of mandible by disarticulating temporo-mandibular joint at caudal end and cut the ramus just behind the mental foramen.