eChapters

• General considerations

 • Examination of skin scrapings for mange

 • Examination of skin scrapings for fungi

 • Cultural examination

General Considerations

The skin scrapings are examined for the diagnosis of skin diseases, including parasitic, fungal and bacterial infections and infestations.

• General considerations

 • Collection of synovial fluid

• Examination of synoival fluid

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Microbiological examination

 • Examination for immune complexes

 • Miscellaneous examination

 • Inflammatory conditions of joints

 • Non-infectious arthritis

 • Infectious arthritis

 • Immune complex mediated arthritis

• General considerations

 • Collection

 • Preservation

 • Examination

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Microscopic examination

 • Organized sediment

 • Unorganized sediment

 • Cultural examination

Introduction
Experimental physiology is a fundamental aspect of medical, veterinary and biological sciences that seeks to understand how living systems function through controlled experiments. It plays a crucial role in exploring the mechanisms behind normal and abnormal physiological processes. With roots in ancient medicine, experimental physiology was notably advanced by Claude Bernard in the 19th century, who introduced key concepts
like homeostasis and experimental methods that are still in use today. The interdisciplinary nature of this field connects it with disciplines such as biochemistry, pharmacology, and bioengineering, promoting a more comprehensive understanding of biological processes.
Investigating Physiological Processes
Experimental physiology aims to explore how organisms function at the cellular, molecular, organ, and systemic levels. This field investigates both normal physiology and the mechanisms behind diseases, offering insights into how organs and systems interact. Laboratory-based experiments are central to this learning process, allowing students and researchers to apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios. By observing how
tissues, organs, and entire systems respond to stimuli, experimental physiology enables the exploration of the relationship between structure and function in biological organisms. The practical experience gained in the lab is critical for medical and veterinary education, as theoretical knowledge alone is insufficient. In fields like physics and chemistry, materials can often be stored for future use. However, in biology, especially physiology, fresh
live tissue is often needed for fundamental experiments. For example, muscle and nerve tissues require careful handling and immediate use after isolation to study their responses to electrical stimuli. In in vivo experiments, live organisms are studied in their natural context, while in vitro studies use isolated cells, tissues, or organs to understand their behavior in a controlled environment.

The diagnosis of blindness is as follows: an animal that is blind is apprehensive, easily agitated, has an uptight head position with a feeling gait, stumbles forward, steps up high, collides with obstacles in its path, and lacks the cross reflex, photomotor pupillary reflex, and palpebral reflex. Clinical examination of the eye:

• By necked eye

• By magnifying lenses

• By catoptric test: use to detect opacities of the cornea and lens

• By ophthalmoscope

• By tonometry: use to measure intraocular pressure.

Aim

Purpose: As there is no institution for preparation ofthomassplintfor large animal till date for which physician are preparing thomas splint hear the patient at the time of need.

These thomas splint are generally prepared with useof bamboo, Gl wire, jute of cottonbandages. These thomas splint are generally weak. These thomas splint work for (2-3) month.

For this reason there is necessity of fabrication of large animal thomas splint with us e of other strong and lightest material for long time stonage and use.

It consists of 2 parts-A) fabrication of fixed supporting frame B) fabrication of animal swing frame.

Fabrication of fixed supporting frame -

Materials required - Bamboo pole and rope

Fabrication Technique - Size a frame 3m for large animals, 2.5m for medium sized and 2 ml for small sized animals.

Fabrication of animal swing frame-

Materials required - Strong fixed rectangular iron frame

Fabrication technique - The required no. of bicycle tyres are fastened upon the frame. All individual tyres are tied with jute threads at 3-4 places.

Procedure for Netted Padded Bamboo Splint

Marking of the bamboo splints is done maintaining equal distance (Fig.1).

At both the edges of the marking, grooving of the bamboo splints is done for perfect tieing of the plastic rope (Fig.2).

The bamboo splints are tied with the help of plastic rope maintaining 1 finger space between each bamboo splint (Fig.3).

Soft 8 layer padding of cotton is provided at both the ends of the netted bamboo splint in order to avoid injury (Fig.5).

The width of the netted padded bamboo splint should be upto one and half times of the limb’s circumference (Fig.6).

The reproductive efficiency in dairy herd is one of the important factor in determining total production and profitability. To remain profitable, dairy cows must reproduce at greatest efficiency and should calve every year (12-13 months). The measure of fertility in a herd is the calving rate (percentage of live, normal calves born). However, it is also necessary to measure fertility based on services per conception. In a healthy herd in which fertile bulls are used, an average of about 1.6 to 1.7 services is required per conception. The number of services per conception is particularly useful for analyzing costs and in comprising the A.I. quite similar to that obtained through natural service in well managed herds. Another measure of fertility is the non-return rate that is calculated from insemination records. Non-return rate is the percentage of cows that are not subsequently rebred within a defined period (60 to 90 days) following an insemination. On an average, about 70% percent of cows inseminated fail to return for service after first service on a 60 to 90 days non-return basis.

The spermatogenesis is a continuous process in male animals but affected by following factors. 
    
1.     Genetic makeup of male animal: Certain sperm defects like Diadem defect, knobbed sperm, decapitated sperm, sterilizing tail stump, corkscrew mid piece and narrow head are inherited defects and reported in certain males. Few inherited genetic factors are also associated with poor libido and poor fertility. Inherited sperm defects affect sperm motility, fertilization and embryo formation.

Introduction
Fertilization is sequence of events that begins with contact between a sperm and an oocyte, resulting in fusion of two gametes and formation of a zygote (unicellular embryo). Site of fertilization is distal end of ampulla of fallopian tube (ampulla-isthmus junction) in mammals and in birds, is infundibulum. Only 1% of sperms deposited in vagina enter cervix. Movement of sperm from cervix to uterine tube occurs by muscular contractions of uterus & uterine tube and by their own propulsion. Immediately after ovulation, ovum is caught by the fimbriae of the infundibular part of oviduct and is brought to the ampulla.Cilia along epithelium of oviduct moves OCc. In farm animals (except swine) corona radiata cells drop off in ampulla. In swine, they persist and help in attachment of ova to each other in forming egg-clumps. The optimum fertilizable life of egg in most mammals is 12-24 hours after ovulation, but in dog it may extend up to 4 days.
Site of ejaculation is
Cow, primates, sheep, goat: Anterior vagina
Horse, pig: Body of uterus
Capacitation
Spermatozoa are not able to fertilize the oocyte immediately after arrival in female genital tract. To acquire fertility, they must reside there for a certain period of time. The changes that occur during this period constitute capacitation. Ejaculated spermatozoa must be exposed to secretions of female reproductive tract for a variable period of time before they attain capacity to fertilize oocyte. The secretions of uterus & oviduct participate in capacitation. Important processes during capacitation are: 1. Surface of spermatozoa in region of epididymis acquires certain molecules (proteins & carbohydrates in nature) and in seminal plasma, these molecules are masked by surface proteins. In female reproductive tract, these molecules along with surface proteins are removed. Removal of cholesterol and GAGs sperm cell surface.

Indicaton: Irreversible damage of both the bovine digits & to provide a foot pad for comfortable walking of animal

Benign/malignant tumor may arise from fibrous tissue. Fibroma mostly occurs in the dermis or subcutis of limbs and head.

The tumour is most commonly seen in adult and aged dogs. It occurs anywhere on the body surface. It is due to trauma, chronic inflammation, vaccination, genetic predisposition etc.

21.1 Liquid Nitrogen Container/ Cryocan

To store liquid nitrogen a special type of container is used and is known as a LIQUID NITROGEN CONTAI NER OR CRYOCAN. Frozen semen doses are always preserved in liquid nitrogen which is an inert liquid having a boiling point of -1960C and a freezing point of -212°C. Liquid Nitrogen Containers are doubled walled metal (Stainless Steel/Aluminium) vacuum vessels with a very efficient insulation system. Due to highly efficient insulation system the temperature inside the container can remain -196 oC as long as atleast two inches of Liquid Nitrogen is present in the container. It has got an inner chamber which is suspended in outer chamber through neck tube which is a non metal and bad conductor of heat. Walls of the inner chamber are coated with a high quality of insulation material. The space between the inner and outer chamber is also filled with high quality insulation material. Vacuum is created in between inner and outer chamber. Loss of vacuum will lead to the boiling of the liquid nitrogen gas and hence rapid loss of this gas from the inner chamber.

After the patient has been radiographed, the exposed X-ray film is processed to produce the consistent quality radiographs. Film processing can be manually, or use an automatic film processor.  Manual film processing is a multi-stage process involving five basic steps in processing X-ray film: 
    i)    Developing 
    ii)    Rinsing 
    iii)    Fixing
    iv)    Washing
    v)    Drying.