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Surgery : The branch of medical science which deals with the treatment of injuries, deformities or disease condition by manipulation or operations with the hand. The term surgery is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia. 
Cheir – Hand 
Ergon – Work 
Veterinary surgery : Veterinary surgery is the surgery which is practiced on animals. 

The ultrasonography is a technique which uses sound waves of very high frequency to scan the various organs of the body. The ultrasound waves of 2-10 mHz frequency are used in veterinary practice. A quartz crystal when stimulated by short pulse current ultrasound waves are emitted. The ultrasound waves emitted are directed towards a specific target organ are reflected back as echoes. The echoes are received by the same quartz crystal and are processed in the electronic circuit and finally displayed as image on the monitor.

The mast cell tumors are focal or multicentric in nature in the skin and occasionally in the internal organs. It is more common in middle aged dogs without sex predilection.

Non-specific uterine infections reduce the reproductive efficiency of livestock.  They are called nonspecific because the initial colonizing bacterium is not known and the specific bacteria causing the signs of infection are not known.  Even though numerous bacteria, in a variety of combinations, have been isolated from infected uteri, Corynebacterium pyogenes and Escherichia coli are usually associated with uterine infections in cattle and sheep.  Empirical therapeutic approach, prescriptions without scientific validation (extra-label use) or inadequate clinical judgment itself to ascertain the nature of uterine infection, obviously due to lack of diagnostic tools are the prime reasons for therapeutic failure for the unsuccessful treatment of uterine infection by large animal practitioners.

Production is based on reproduction and health of reproductive system. Economy of livestock industry is directly attached to the maintenance of high fertility in the herd so controlling the reproductive diseases in cattle is a must.  Reproductive health may be disturbed by reproductive infections like Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and Bovine viral diarrhea.

Burn : Tissue changes due to excessive absorption of heat is known as burns.
Scald : A scald is a burn caused by moist heat and is usually partial thickness.

Etiology
       Dry heat
       Actinic rays (sunburn)
       Irradiation
       Moist heat
       Electricity
       Friction
       Dry heat causes desiccation and charring.

Sprain : It is defined as a joint injury in which fibers of supporting ligaments of the joint are ruptured by direct or indirect trauma. Depending upon the degree of ligament rupture, sprain can be classified as follows: 

Reproductive process involves many events that have to occur in a well balanced manner if satisfactory fertility rate is to be achieved. Any adverse  effect of  physiological, morphological  or environmental effect on the male  or  female may result  in failure  of  fertility  or reduced fertility  depending  on the severity of the cause. Apart from this, the role of person who stands between the cow and the bull play an important role. The efficiency of the person handling the semen and depositing in the reproductive tract of domestic animal will influence to a great extent on the conception rate in A.I. programme. It is observed that certain bovine population fails to conceive at a single service or series of services.   Some times there is loss of conceptus during gestation or produces a dead calf or weak calf that will die soon after birth.
 
Consequences of these factors affect cows and may have long calving interval, abortion or sterility, all of which tend to decrease the average daily production of milk.

Inflammation of the joint is known as arthritis.
Coxitis : Inflammation of hip joint.
Gonitis : Inflammation of stifle joint.
Omarthritis : Inflammation of shoulder joint.
Carpitis : Inflammation of carpal joint.

Arterial diseases are important because of their serious effect on vital organs like brain, heart and kidney. Thrombosis is the most common complication of arterial diseases but hemorrhage and aneurysm formation may occur.

Acus means needle. It is an ancient Chinese system of therapy utilizing long fine needles at specific points and their stimulation by various means to induce analgesia and to cure certain diseases. The specific points are known as acupuncture points or acupoints.
 
The procedure is safe. There are no post anaesthetic complications and can be used in poor surgical risk patients. The major disadvantage is poor muscle relaxation. Acupuncture has been used to produce local anaesthesia.
 
Acupoints : Alphanumeric code system is used to recognize the acupoints universally e.g. BL, LI, SP, GB etc means meridians of the urinary bladder, large intestine, spleen, gall bladder etc. respectively.

Surgical pack : It is sterilized bundle containing the conventional surgical instruments and drapes etc. required for routine surgical operation.
 
Common surgical instruments: These instruments are used in routine general surgery and made up of stainless steel. Stainless steel not only has excellent strength but also resistant to corrosion. The general instruments are:

    1.    Towel clamp : It is used to hold the drape in position. It has pointed ends so that drape does not slipped away from the area of operation. Small amount of skin is grasped to secure the drape. It is of two types :

    a.    Backhause towel clamp
 
    b.    Cross action towel clamp

    2.    Bard Parker knife / scalpel (B.P. handle with blade) : Bard Parker knife is available as disposable knife. BP handle is available with changeable blades.

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

Anaesthesia is an important criterion for doing laparoscopic procedure, which is being achieved by induction of general anaesthesia. However, in certain species, e.g. bovine, caprine etc., it can be done by preanaesthetic agent and infiltration of the local anesthetic agent at the site of the trocar placement. Selection of an anesthetic agent depends on the patient conditions, nature of procedure; time to be taken for the laparoscopic procedure and available facility. For the induction of the general anaesthesia follow the same procedure as in the conventional surgery viz. fasting, water withheld, preanaesthetic, fluid administration etc. Further, due to difference in the physiology of cardiopulmonary system of different animals, all these considerations varied from species to species and breed-to-breed. For instance cattle and buffalo are more prone to regurgitation and subsequent aspiratory pneumonia in general anaesthesia than those of dog and cat. While going for induction of general anaesthesia, an anesthetist should know about the different drug being used, their mechanism of action, effect on the different body system, their adverse effect and pure antagonist, if possible. Besides this an anesthetist should also know about the patient physiology and equipment for the administration of the anesthetic agents, because veterinary anesthetist is faced with numerous disturbances of cardiopulmonary and skeletal muscle function associated with general anaesthesia. For anaesthesia no anaesthetic agent is safe until and unless it is used by an experienced anesthetist.

Positioning of the patient/anesthesia

The patient is transported to the operating room and after general anesthesia the patient is placed in a desirable position. Some operating tables can be repositioned intraoperatively, allowing the surgeon to change the angle of the patient during the procedure. Special care should be taken to avoid nerve injury by malpositioning the patient, particularly along the popliteal fossa and brachial plexus. If any part of the patient is in contact with a metal object, patient may be at risk of electro surgical burns. General anesthesia is preferred for laparoscopy as it provides adequate muscle relaxation and assisted respiration particularly as the patient is in Trendelenburg position.

Many surgeons have made attempts to develop minimally invasive surgical techniques with minimum blood loss and fewer traumas, to treat the disease process and minimize patient morbidity. Laparoscopic surgery may provide a wide field of its extensive application particularly in surgical sterilization of different animal species. Furthermore, high demographic urban and industrial area requires an effective animal birth control programme, which can overcome the problem of hospitalization, postoperative complications, and the overall cost reduction of operation. The sterilization of (both male and female) is effective measure in controlling the stray dog’s problem. Because the sterilization of either male or female alone is not effective and also sterilization of female consume more time when compared to male sterilization. To combat stray dogs in Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme, it is effective to sterilize the male also. Castration of male dogs by conventional open method has many disadvantages and postoperative complications such as hemorrhage, wound dehiscence, infections, maggot infestations and scrotal swellings etc. In a large scale Animal Birth Control programme, the conventional methods of sterilization requires a long period between capture of dogs and their release due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, Keyhole surgery (Laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire programme, as it needs only very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings. It also avoids postoperative complications such as wound dehiscence, herniation, etc. and reduces the surgical stress to animal as well as recurring cost of each surgery.

Introduction

The most common indication for laparoscopy in zoo animal clinical medicine includes evaluation of liver disorders (e.g. cirrhosis, hepatitis, hepatomegaly), staging for cancer treatment (liver and peritoneal metastases), diagnosis of various peritoneal diseases (e.g. ascites), diagnosis of pelvic soft tissue diseases (e.g. ovarian problem, endometritis, pyometra,) and diseases of spleen and pancreas. The utility of laparoscopy in zoo animal practice is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results. Laparoscopy is now most commonly used in zoo animal medicine to examine and biopsy of liver, gall bladder, kidney, spleen, pancreas, ovaries and prostrate. It provides an excellent means for visualizing the surfaces and colour. Even subtle color and texture changes can be readily detected. The liver is generally evaluated through a right lateral mid abdominal approach in canine and feline species of zoo animals. Abnormal gross liver changes that can be readily appreciated include hepatic lipidosis, glycogen leaden liver, metastasis or multifocal neoplasm, nodular hyperplasia, cirrhosis, cholangihepatitis, extra hepatic biliary tract obstruction etc. Using grasping forceps advanced through the second puncture cannula, the biopsy can be obtained quickly and safely in zoo animals. The pancreas can usually be visualized thorough a right abdominal approach and biopsy samples can be safely obtained.

Bandages
       Bandages are used to protect the wound and incisions, as well as support body parts.

       Bandages are also used to immobilize the limbs.

       Bandages are used to promote the wound healing process by :

        i.    Removal of dead and necrosed tissue from the wound (debridement).
        ii.    Application of topical antiseptics.
        iii.    Pressure to reduce the dead space, hemorrhage and edema.
        iv.    Preserving the hemostasis at the wound site.

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