eChapters

The knowledge and principles from interconnected disciplines of bioengineering, material science and life sciences are combined in tissue engineering with the aim of developing a construct, that can wholly or partly restore/maintain/augment the function of a damaged tissue or organ. Tissue engineering construct generally comprises cells on a suitable scaffold. The ultimate functionality of a tissue engineering construct is mainly dependent on the cell behavior on scaffolds. The proliferation and cell viability on scaffolds varies from one cell type to another and from one species to another. So it is important to investigate individual cell-scaffold combinations. The similarity in structure and composition to bone mineral, osteoconducive properties, ability to integrate with the bony tissue and absence of immune response makes hydroxyapatite [Ca₁₀ (PO₄)₆(OH)₂] the choice of calcium phosphate biomaterial with only disadvantage of slow rate of resorption. On contrary, silica–calcium phosphate composite in comparison to calcium phosphate is rich biomaterials having a faster resorption rate. Studies have shown that coating of hydroxyapatite with a calcium silicate containing layer encourages cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells. So in this chapter, a triphasic composite scaffold (calcium silicate, hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate), namely HASi with elements in the following percentages: 66.36 % - calcium, 25.35 % - phosphorus and silicon - 8.29 % and porosity of 50 – 500 µm is reported to evaluate the rBMSC proliferation and differentiation properties in vitro.

The present chapter is therefore, included with the aim of assessing cytocompatibility of HASi and rBMSC in terms of cell attachment, cell morphology, cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation.

The incidence of mammary tumor accounts for 25% of all the recorded tumors in dogs worldwide. Overall, about 198 cases of CMT are recorded per one lakh female dogs annually throughout the world which is quite an alarming percentage (Gray et al., 2020). Malignancy has also been recorded up to 45% which increases the fatality among morbid cases. Epidemiology of CMT is poorly documented particularly in India. In an epidemiological study conducted on canine tumors in Jammu in 2018, the overall prevalence was only 2% over a period of one year. The malignant tumors accounted 41.66% of the mammary tumors (Sharma et al., 2018). The rate of benign and malignant tumors incidence was reported as 46% and 54%, respectively. In another study conducted on the incidence of CMT in Ludhiana (Punjab) in 2020, it was found that 33.96% tumors were benign and 66.03% were malignant (Dash et al., 2020).

A

Adenocarcinomas 3, 7

Adenomas 7

ALDH1 17, 18

Anaplastic carcinomas 7

B

Babesiosis 1

Bcl 17, 21, 23

Benign tumors 3, 5

Biomarkers 17, , 29, 30, 31

BRCA 31

C

Canine 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 19,

19, 22, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34

Canine distemper 1

Canine Mammary Tumors 1, , 5, 7, 8, 13, 17,

19, 29, 32, 33

Canine parvoviral diarrhoea 1

Carcinogenesis 10, 25

CHEK2 15

Classification and Grading 7

Companion animals 1, 9

COX inhibitors 21, 26

Cyclooxygenases 23, 26, 35

D

Deracoxib 21, 26

Diagnosis 19, 20

Doxorubicin 21

E

EMT 17, 25

Epidemiology 11

Estrogen receptors 20

FGFR2 15

Introduction

A downer cow is an animal In sternal recumbency and isn’t showing obvious clinical sign of hypocalcemia,hypomagnesmia or any limb or spinal Injury. Most causes are related to parturition, occurring in few days before or upto a week after calving.

Causes for Making an Animal Downer

Animals Inability to stand may be caused by illness or injury. Following may be the reasons

Ketamine and Propofol - “Ketofol”
“Ketofol’’ is a 1:1 (w:w) combination of ketamine and propofol (Taboada and Leece, 2014; Thejasree et al., 2018). The advantages of using both ketamine and propofol in combination (Ketofol) include analgesia, rapid recovery, preservation of airways and maintenance of spontaneous respiration and haemodynamic stability (Saeed, 2011). The admixture has benefits of both drugs, while reducing the side effects of the individual drugs when administered alone (Amornyotin, 2014; Lee and Lee, 2016; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Propofol-induced respiratory depression is less with the admixture, while analgesia and cardiorespiratory functions are good due to ketamine (Amornyotin, 2014; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Since the adverse effects are dose dependent, the combination helps reduce the dose of the individual drug needed to cause the desired anaesthetic effects. This combination of ketamine and propofol can be used to induce anaesthesia following sedation with any of the previously mentioned balanced sedative cocktails. Induction should be “titrated to effect” based on the depth of sedation achieved from the administration of the balanced sedative cocktails.
Thiopentone and Propofol - “Thio-propofol”
Thio-propofol is a 1:1 vol:vol mixture of 2.5% thiopentone and 1% propofol (Ko et al., 1999; Evans et al., 2002; Larisa et al., 2008). Since the mechanisms of action of propofol and thiopentone are similar, the mixture provides an additive hypnotic interaction (Vinik et al., 1999) and behaves in-between to that of the

Fertility is the ability of a male to impregnate the fertile female. The reduced or temporary loss of fertility is called infertility whereas permanent loss of fertility is called sterility. A male with low libido or poor sex drive may have excellent semen quality or a male with good libido may have poor seminal quality. So, libido has no direct relation with the male fertility. Male infertility can be categorized into Impotentia coeundi and Impotentia generandi. 1. Impotentia Coeundi • The condition of reduced or lack of sex drive or Inability to copulate (failure of normal service) is referred to as impotentia coeundi. • It may occur due to immaturity, poor experience to perform coitus, inability or unwillingness to mount, inability to perform intromission or failure of ejaculation. • The following conditions may reflect the immaturity or poor/bad experience of the male animal which leads to impotentia coeundi:

It is defined as the reaction of living tissue to injury which begins following a sub-lethal injury to tissues and ends with complete healing. The purpose of inflammation is to destroy and remove the irritant and to repair the damaged tissue. 

Causes
    1.    Pathogenic organisms: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozan and parasites.
    2.    Chemical poisons: Acid and alkalies. 
    3.    Mechanical or thermal injuries. 
    4.    Immune reaction: Antigen antibody reaction.

Advantages
    1.    These agents are primarily exhaled through the lungs and recovery is not dependent upon redistribution within the body and detoxification mechanisms. This is helpful in poor risk patient.
 
    2.    Anesthesiologist has good control over the anesthesia.
 
    3.    Early recovery of the patient.

    4.    Closed system available for thoracic surgery.

Injectable Anesthesia

Injectable anesthetics are the agents which are administered to the patient parentrally. They include drugs which are given intravenously to rapidly induce anesthesia in a patient. Single or combinations of drugs usually administered intramuscularly to patients which are difficult to handle. Injectable agents generally require less equipment and are easier to administer than inhalation anesthetics, but it must be remembered that once they are given to a patient they cannot be removed.

The basic equipment for performing laparoscopy includes the laparoscope and corresponding trocar and cannula, light source, gas insufflator and the Veress needle. Laparoscope applicable for use in the small animals (dog, goat, sheep and lab animals) ranges in diameter from 2.7 to 10 mm in diameter, however, a 5mm diameter telescope is suitable for most cases and 2.7mm may be required for toy breeds of dogs and lab animals. A 0 or 30 degree direction of vision provides the operator with a “normal’ field of view and has proven most useful. Authors are using a 5-mm diameter 30-degree field of view telescope for routine diagnostic laparoscopy. The 5-mm diameter is adequate for most all small animal procedures in animals of variable size. The 0-degree designation means that the telescope views the visual field directly in front of the telescope.

Decision Support Systems convert farm data into recommendations that improve livestock productivity, health and sustainability. This chapter explains data-driven, model-driven and knowledge-based systems and their principal components: data management, analytical models and user interfaces. Technologies such as IoT, artificial intelligence, machine learning and cloud computing support applications in feed optimization, disease prediction, reproductive management, milk production and animal-welfare monitoring. Dairy and poultry examples demonstrate how DSS can reduce operational costs and strengthen farm decisions. Implementation challenges include inadequate data quality, high costs, limited technical expertise and maintenance requirements. Future systems are expected to integrate blockchain, robotics, Edge AI and increasingly autonomous management technologies.

Repairing fractures in small animal’s presence challenges to the veterinarians in their day to day service. These challenges include properly repairing fractures, each of which is unique, choosing the right fixation device, keeping an extensive inventory of costly instruments, and providing high standards of care for fracture repair. But fracture repair also gives veterinarians the opportunities to do something a little unusual in daily practice and to experience the immediate gratification of easing pain and promoting activity in injured animals.

Successful management of fractures mainly depends upon early diagnosis, type of fracture, timing of surgery and selection of proper method of fixation. The fixation of fractures can be achieved either by external or internal fixation methods. An ideal method of fracture fixation is one that can maintain early anatomical reduction, minimal soft tissue trauma, rigid stability and early motion of bone and joint. Restoring a fractured bone’s normal shape is important for return to function because it contributes to normal alignment of adjacent joint surfaces. Whereas, rigid stability of fracture fixation eliminates fragment movement and reduces pain. Soft tissue trauma adjacent to fractured bone should be minimum, which play a vital role in early vascularisation and prevents infection. Finally, early return to function maintains muscular tone of the limb allows normal weight mobility and joint nutrition and uses normal weight bearing forces to maintain bone density. These can be achieved with use of internal fixation devices.

Definition

Fracture of femur comes under higher level fracture (Fig. 1) where the appropriate treatment is intramedullary pinning and modified Thomas Splint.

Requirement

Parentral sedative

Local anaesthesia

6mm 1fit long intramedullary pin (Fig.No-3)

Electric bone drill

Bone hammer

Pin cutter

Definition

Humerus is long selender and has slight spiral twist.

Oblique type of fracture is most common in diaphyseal region.

It come under higher level of fracture.(Fig. No-1)

Appropriate method of fixation is by intramedullary pinning and modified thomas splint.

Myology: It is the branch of biological science which deals with the description of different muscles and their accessory structures.

Muscle is a contractile tissue present in all animals. Its function is to produce motion. Impulses from nerve cells control the contraction of each muscle fiber. Contractile part of muscles is muscular tissue.

There are three kinds of muscular tissue in the body:

a. Striated or striped muscle

b. Non-striated or unstriped or smooth muscle

c. Cardiac muscle.

For dissection purpose only striated muscles are included in this book.

Andrology is a branch of reproductive physiology that deals specifically with the study and treatment of male animals including humans. The study of reproductive physiology started with Aristotle around 350 B.C. in his book entitled Generation of animals, who believed that, the fetus arose from menstrual blood. He had no way of observing spermatozoa in the ejaculate or the beginning of embryo development. He assumed that, menstruation did not occur during pregnancy and the fetus was derived from menstrual blood. He also proposed that, the conversion of menstrual blood to a fetus was initiated by seminal fluid deposited in the male during copulation. Aristotle also assumed that, the testes were just like pendulum weights that kept the transport ducts from becoming kinked or plugged with seminal fluid. He has no research tools and his speculations were not very unreasonable. Later, a Dutch scientist named van Leeuwenhoek who developed a simple microscope made a major breakthrough in the study of reproductive physiology. Leeuwenhoek observed semen and discovered that it contained small particles that moved about and he named moving particles as ‘Animalcules’ and published a paper in 1677. The speculation was that the animalcule contained a fully formed individual within their cellular confines. Sperm head was thought to contain a microscopic yet fully formed individual. Later, Dumas concluded that, the animalcules now called spermatozoa were responsible for uniting with the ovum and producing an embryo. Over 2000 years elapsed from the speculations of Aristotle until it was understood that the spermatozoa from the male required for fertilizing ova from the female.

Animal husbandry faces increasing pressure to produce safe milk, meat and eggs while improving animal welfare and reducing environmental impacts. Traditional observation-based management is increasingly inadequate for large and complex livestock systems. This chapter introduces digital transformation through Precision Livestock Farming, which combines IoT devices, smart sensors, wearables, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning and digital twins. Continuous animal-centred data enables timely decisions concerning health, reproduction, feeding, behaviour and welfare. The chapter explains how digital technologies can support early disease detection, efficient resource use and improved productivity across commercial and smallholder farms, creating more profitable, sustainable and welfare-conscious livestock systems.

Introduction
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are a quality system concerned with the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived, and reported. GLP ensures the quality and integrity of the study process rather than the scientific validity of the study itself. It provides a framework for ensuring that data generated in non-clinical safety studies are reliable and reproducible, thereby facilitating the mutual acceptance of data by regulatory authorities worldwide (OECD, 1998; US EPA, 2016). GLP represents a structured quality system designed to ensure the consistency and reliability of non-clinical safety studies. It establishes a framework encompassing organizational processes and laboratory conditions, with a focus on:
1. Systematic Study Conduct: GLP mandates a methodical approach to the planning, execution, supervision, recording, reporting, and archiving of studies.
2. Data Integrity Assurance: The primary objective is to guarantee the dependability of data generated, thereby fostering confidence in safety assessments.
3. Regulatory Compliance Support: GLP facilitates adherence to regulatory standards, enabling the acceptance of study findings by authorities worldwide.
4. Non-Clinical Safety Focus: It specifically applies to studies that precede human clinical trials, particularly those evaluating the potential hazards of chemical substances (OECD, 1998).
In veterinary and allied fields, GLP extends beyond general scientific rigor to address the unique challenges of animal health, food safety, and environmental protection related to animal populations. It ensures the reliability and traceability of data generated in studies related to veterinary pharmaceuticals, feed additives, diagnostics, and environmental toxicology involving animals. The focus is on maintaining the integrity of studies that directly impact animal welfare, public health, and agricultural sustainability (World Organization for Animal Health, 2018; FDA, 2010). In the context of veterinary medicine or treatment aspects, GLP in veterinary refers to a a well organised quality system that governs the organization and conditions under which non-clinical studies related to animal health and safety are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. This includes:

    ·    Radiology (Roentgenology): the science, which deals with diagnostic (radio-diagnosis) and therapeutic applications (radiotherapy) of radiant energy particularly of X-rays.

    ·    Veterinary radiology: the science, which deals with the uses of radiant energy for diagnostic (radio-diagnosis) and therapeutic applications (radiotherapy) in domestic, zoo, laboratory, exotic animals and birds.

    ·    Veterinary radiologist: a qualified person in radio-diagnosis and radiotherapy.

    ·    Radiography: is the making of film records (radiographs) of internal structures of the body by passing X-rays through the body to act on specially sensitized film.