eChapters

A. Definition

A fracture is a break in the continuity of hard tissues like bone, cartilage, etc.

B. Etiology

(a) Extrinsic causes

Direct violence

Indirect violence

Bone is an integral part of musculo-skeletal system of body. In the living animal it is bluish pink, whereas, fresh dead bone is yellowish-white in colour. It is hard and resistant to pressure but also have certain amount of elasticity. Its tensile strength is equal to the cast iron, though bone three times lighter and ten times flexible to cast iron.

Number of bones: The number of bones of the skeleton varies with age and species. Number of bones in cattle-210; Horse-208; Dog-271; Fowl-166 and human-208 (207-212)

Composition of bone: Bone contains different bone cells, organic and inorganic matrix and water. Organic matrix is about one-third and Inorganic matrix is two-third weight by volume. The organic material consists of 90% collagen [type-I (maximum), type V and type XII] and 10% non-collagenous glycoprotein and bone specific proteoglycans (osteocalcin, osteonectin, sialoprotein, bone phosphoproteins and small proteoglycans) and bone growth factors [TGF-beta family; Insulin-like growth factor-1, 2; bone morphogenetic protein (BMP); platelet derived growth factor (PDGF); Interleukin -1 (IL-1); Interleukin-6 (IL-6); colony stimulating factor]. Organic matrix of bone resembles the matrix of dense fibrous tissues such as tendons, ligament and joint capsule. It is not certain whether all of these proteins are synthesized by bone cells or whether they are synthesized by cells outside of the bone and then incorporated into the bone matrix. However, their presence within bone and their potential to affect the activity of bone cells suggests they have important role in controlling bone cell functions. Inorganic matrix of bone or mineral component of bone serves as an ion reservoir and gives bone of its stiffness and strength. It reserves 99% of body calcium, 85% body phosphorus and 40-60% body sodium and magnesium. Inorganic matrix of bone is composed of 85% calcium phosphate, 12% calcium carbonate, 3% of magnesium phosphate, calcium fluoride and magnesium carbonate. It also contains traces of chlorine, sodium, potassium. These minerals remain as hydroxyapatite crystal form within bone. However, bone mineral crystal is not pure hydroxyapatite, instead they contain both carbonate and acid phosphate groups (HPO₄) and bone crystal does not contain OH groups. Bone matrix has such great durability and stability that it can remain essentially unchanged and retain much of its strength for centuries after death. Removal of organic matters renders the bone fragile, brittle and shattered, whereas, decalcification renders bone soft and pliable and resistant to fracture.

Systematic recording is vital for smooth running of any artificial insemination enterprise. All the information in the center should be so arranged so that it can be readily be traced out and used for analysis of performance of the center. The records should be critically analyzed for selecting better animals / personnel and for improving reproductive management. The objective of record keeping is as follows.

Operation theatre (OT) is a place where surgical operations are performed under the principle of aseptic surgery. An ideal operation theatre :
    Should be located near the work and intensive care areas of the hospital.

    Should be independent of general traffic. One way traffic flow is maintained to ensure sterility. 

    If possible, air within the OT should be under mild positive pressure so that when the surgery room opened, air flows out of rather than into the room.
 
    Floors, walls and ceilings should be constructed of impervious material that can easily be cleaned and disinfected.
 
    The lighting of the OT should entirely be dependent on artificial light.
 
    Room temperature should be about 70^ºF with a relative humidity of about 50% provides a better environment for the surgeon and patient.

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

The basic equipment for performing laparoscopy includes the laparoscope and corresponding trocar and cannula, light source, gas insufflator and the Veress needle. Laparoscope applicable for use in the small animals (dog, goat, sheep and lab animals) ranges in diameter from 2.7 to 10 mm in diameter, however, a 5mm diameter telescope is suitable for most cases and 2.7mm may be required for toy breeds of dogs and lab animals. A 0 or 30 degree direction of vision provides the operator with a “normal’ field of view and has proven most useful. Authors are using a 5-mm diameter 30-degree field of view telescope for routine diagnostic laparoscopy. The 5-mm diameter is adequate for most all small animal procedures in animals of variable size. The 0-degree designation means that the telescope views the visual field directly in front of the telescope.

CONTRACEPTION DUE TO MISALLIANCE AND TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY IN BITCHES

It is obvious that breeders maintain varieties of breeds but mismating do occur within their own premises and sometimes by unwarranted stray animal.

Misalliance complicates too many other problems.

Incidence of mismating is 15 to 20 percent in canine breeding.

TRUE ANESTRUS IN A HEIFER OR POST PARTUM COW / BUFFALO

The animal has both ovaries small and inactive

No palpable structures in the ovaries

Animal does not exhibiting estrus signs

Accurate early diagnosis of pregnancy is essential for successful breeding programme.

Ability is required for successful practice.

Skill is to be developed to indicate the duration within weeks in early and months in late pregnancy.

RECTAL EXAMINATION

It provides practically all the information required.

It is the simplest, accurate and reliable method with no cost involved.

Things Required

A full arm rubber sleeve with attached glove or disposable plastic glove.
A rubber or plastic apron.
Non-irritant soap or lubricant.