eChapters

Objectives • Seminal evaluation and processing • Evaluation of bull fertility on the basis of its seminal characters • To make the Artificial insemination programme successful History Related to Semen Collection • The use of artificial vagina was started by Milovanov for semen collection. Before that method of placing the cotton ball in vagina was used. • AV for Dog was discovered by Amantea in 1914. Milovanov discovered AV for Bull, ram and stallion. Mckenzie discovered AV for boar (1931). • The electroejaculatory method of semen collection was initiated in a bull by Laplaud & Cassou and in ram by Gunn. • Burrows and Quinn (1937) developed the method of abdominal massage and pressure to collect semen in poultry.

Metritis is a condition seen in cattle in which there is the inflammation of the entire thickness of uterine wall (endometrium, myometrium and serosa). When it occurs just after parturition, it is called puerperal metritis. It usually occurs after abnormal birth like in case of dystocia, abortion, RFM etc. The animal shows systemic signs like increase in temperature initially, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc. There is expulsion of large volume of foul smelling reddish to brown discharge from vagina frequently associated with straining. The expelled discharge from vagina is often with pieces of degenerating placenta.

The following tests are used for microscopic evaluation of semen: 
    
12.1    Sperm motility
12.2     Per cent Live sperm
12.3     Sperm concentration

12.1 Sperm Motility

The following two methods of estimation of sperm motility are followed in routine practice:
 
12.1.1    Mass activity
12.1.2    Progressive sperm motility
12.1.1 Mass Activity

Mass activity can be defined as ‘en-mass activity of the spermatozoa in the semen, immediately after collection’. Mass activity is generally assessed by vigour of swirls and waves motion in undiluted semen under 20 X magnification and expressed on 0 to 5 scale.

Definition

Fracture of radius-ulna & tibia-fibula comes under middle level fracture.

Methods of Fracture Repair

External coagtation bandage along with thomas splint application.

Technique for Fracture Repair

Animal controlled with lateral recumbency with fractured limb upward.

Fracture of radius-ulna & tibia-fibula comes under middle level fracture. Pop caste application or bandage along with Thomas splint has been considered as standard method of repair.

The fracture site is immobilized extending between joint below and joint above level with either gum bandage or pop caste bandage (Fig.1).

Pop caste bandage is generally applied after 7 days. Hence gum bandage is preferred than pop caste bandage because of immediate application after occurrence of fracture (Fig.2).

For gum bandage application, a 8-16 layer thick cloth is wrapped over the fracture region covering the joint above & joint below of the site after liberal application of fevicol gum. The cotton cloth Is placed in position with few cotton thread knots (Fig.3).

4 bamboo splints are kept on the 4 sites of the limb over cotton padding. The end of bamboo splints kept padded to avoid skin damage. Splints are retained in position by thread with knots (Fig.4).

A 2^nd layer fevicol gum is applied over entire bandage & finally the entire bandage cloth is covered with bandage roll (Fig.5).

At the end the immobilized limb is over strengthened with Thomas splint (Fig. 6).

Minimally invasive percutaneous osteosynthesis (MIPO), or minimally invasive fracture repair, was introduced into human orthopedic surgery during the 1990s because of several distinct advantages over traditional open reduction techniques. In MIPO, large incisions to facilitate open reduction are avoided and implants are introduced through small stab incisions in the skin. This led to advent to more biology friendly techniques. These biological techniques lay stress upon maximal preservation of blood supply around the fractured bone by minimal direct handling of the fracture environment. MIPO offer advantages which include preservation of the fracture hematoma; less surgical trauma to the surrounding soft tissues, reduced operative time therefore, decreased risk of infection and ultimately leading to indirect bone healing with abundant callus. Minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis (MIPO) is a novel technique for application of principles of biological fracture healing with a philosophy of dealing with soft tissues with utmost respect. Following advancements in implant technology and development of techniques of indirect fracture reduction this technique gained more popularity. The evolution of MIPO began with the use of bridge plating. Initially a conventional plate is applied for comminuted femoral fractures using long incisions but with preservation of the vastus lateralis muscle resulting in healing with abundant callus. Subsequently, the size of incisions got decreased, rather two small incisions are given at proximal and distal ends and plates are bridged sub muscularly over the fracture fragments. This technique causes minimal distress to soft tissues and bone, provides access to the bone through soft tissue windows, with minimal or no contact with the fracture by indirect reduction tools and leaving behind minimal foot prints.

• Epidemiological definitions

 • List of tests for international trade

 • OIE listed diseases

 • Solutions and reagents

 • Age and body weight of animals

 • Rectal temperature of animals

 • Normal values of blood vascular system

 • Vaccination schedule

The following tests are discussed under this section:
    16.1    Estimation of ascorbic acid concentration
    16.2    Effect of cold shock
    16.3    Mitochondrial activity
    16.4    Capacitation of spermatozoa and calcium influx 
    16.5    Morphometric analysis
    16.6    Flow cytometry

16.1 Estimation of Ascorbic Acid Concentration

Ascorbic acid concentration in semen is beneficial for its antioxidant action. It protects the spermatozoa against oxidative damage of free radical produced in the semen.

Materials Required

    1.    Test tubes with stand
    2.    Burrette with stand
    3.    Centrifuge tube with stand

In addition to the conventional treatment methods i.e., surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, there are some adjuvant targeted therapies which block the growth of cancer by altering the individually expressed specific molecules responsible for tumor cell proliferation, survival, metastasis or microenvironment. The majorly studied adjuvant therapies include use of hormones, tyrosine kinase receptors, anti-cyclooxygenases, anti-tumor suppressor gene p53 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition inhibition.

The main aim of hormonal therapy (Table 2) is to inhibit the hormone induced stimulation of carcinoma cells, which could be achieved either by ovariohysterectomy or different treatments like use of specific estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS), aromatase inhibitors for suppression of estrogen synthesis etc. A commonly used estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist drug tamoxifen for treatment of ER positive breast cancer in women, has also been tested against CMTs. However, it is not a viable treatment option in dogs due to associated side effects. Ovariohysterectomy is considered as a better and practical solution. The use of hormonal therapy in CMTs is based on the evidence of hormone dependency of these tumors as well as lessons learnt from hormonal therapy outcomes from human breast cancer. This therapy significantly ameliorates the recurrence of breast cancers and prolongs the survival rates in women having breast cancers positive for hormone receptors. However, the results of the canine investigations, which are all retrospective and non-randomized, are contradictory. Detailed research and prospective randomized trials, where effect of OHE is studied in context of hormone receptor status, are required to determine the role of hormonal therapy in CMTs.

Clsssification

Fracture of upper third humerus, shoulder dislocation and scapula has been grouped under highest level fracture. (Fig.1)

Purpose

To know the method of casting the highest level fracture by modified valeau sling application.

Requirement

Thick 8 layer cotton padding, adhesive gum, 6"-8" long bandage rolls.

Indication: Highest level fracture (femur fracture) (Fig. 1)

Treatment: Modified Velpeau Sling application

Requisite

Adhesive gum

Damage Cloth

• General considerations

 • Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)

 • SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE)

• Nucleic acid hybridization

 • Radio labelled probes

 • Biotin labelled probes

 • DNA finger printing

 • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

 • Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT PCR)

Historical Aspect
    Curare was the first known muscle relaxant which was used by South American Indians to immobilize wild animals. Hence the term curariform has been applied to the action of this group of drugs. 
    In year 1958, a plant alkaloid alcuronium was introduced but there were difficulties in reversing the action of this drug.
    Succinylcholine was first used in 1906. However, its paralyzing property was discovered in year 1949.
    Pancuronium was introduced in 1964.
 

Site of incision: Cut the skin over the back and loin region by making cranio caudal straight incision along the proximal part of 1st rib and the lateral margin of transverse process of lumbar vertebrae up to wing of sacrum and reflect the skin to mid dorsal aspect of back and loin.

Site of incision

Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on forelimb from elbow joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect of elbow joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hind-limb from stifle joint to 3rd digit. Joins, the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect at stifle joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb.

Site of Incision

Make an incision around the eyeball at the margin of orbit.Then remove the supraorbital process by cutting dorsal and ventral end to access inside the orbit. Remove all the attachments of eyeball from osseous orbit through carefull dissection. Then remove all the extraoccular and periorbital fat to expose the muscles of eyeball.

Site of incision- Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on forelimb from elbow joint to 3rd digit. Join the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at elbow joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on palmero-medial aspect of limb.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hindlimb from stiffle joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at stiffle joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on plantero-medial aspect of limb.