eChapters

• After equilibration, a pre-freeze evaluation of semen is done. Pre-freeze motility should be more than 70% at 370 C which makes the semen eligible for freezing. Semen Packaging • Semen is packaged in suitable container like pellets, glass ampoules, tupol (polyethene tubes) and semen straws. • In the Ampoule method, semen is packed in glass ampoules and stored in LN2 . Here labeling and handling is easier with less chances of contamination. But more storage space, more time taking to thaw and the use of glass catheter for insemination make their the use less convenient. • In Pellet methods, diluted semen is frozen by pouring it into the holes (0.1, 0.2 ml) made on dry ice (Solid CO2 at 790 c) and these pellets (frozen semen balls) are stored in LN2 . Here glycerolization is not needed as well as process is also quick but labeling is difficult and the chances to get contaminated are more. Handling pellets for insemination is also difficult (breakage or getting stuck to forceps during retrieval).

Sterilization is a process of killing all microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and their spores, and viruses from animate or inanimate surfaces with the use of either physical or chemical agents. Joseph Lister first gave antiseptic principle in 1867.

There is a delicate balance among electrolyte concentrations, body water and acid base status to maintain body homeostasis. Disturbances in homeostasis results in life threatening abnormalities. The aim of fluid therapy is to replace losses and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

Introduction
The digestive system is essential for the survival and overall health of all animals, and its proper function is crucial for the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. In monogastric animals-those with a single-chambered stomach, such as dogs, cats, pigs, and horses-the digestive process is both complex and finely tuned to meet their specific nutritional needs. Understanding the clinical physiology of digestive disorders in monogastric animals is vital for veterinary professionals, animal caretakers, and researchers, as it enables them to recognize, iagnose, and treat various gastrointestinal conditions that may impact these 
species. This introduction provides an overview of the fundamental aspects of digestive physiology in monogastric animals, outlines common digestive disorders, and highlights the importance of this knowledge in clinical practice.
The digestive tract of monogastric animals consists of several organs that work together to break down food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste. The primary components include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated glands such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase to initiate the breakdown of carbohydrates. The bolus of food is then transported through the esophagus to the stomach via coordinated muscular contractions known as peristalsis. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric secretions, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes like pepsin, which help break down proteins. The stomach’s acidic environment also plays a critical role in killing pathogens and aiding the digestion of certain nutrients, such as vitamin B12. The stomach of monogastric animals differs from that of ruminants, as it does not possess multiple compartments for fermentation but rather relies on enzymatic digestion.
The chyme (partially digested food) passes into the small intestine, where most digestion and nutrient absorption occur. The small intestine is composed of three segments-the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum-each with specialized functions. Enzymes secreted by the pancreas and bile from the liver facilitate the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The intestinal lining, with its villi and microvilli, maximizes the surface area for nutrient absorption.

  Term anesthesia by Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes (1886).
  Anasthesis (Greece Word) – absence of sensation.

History of Animal Anesthesia
  Paracelsus (1540) produced ether and reported it to have a soporific effect on fowl. 
  Sir Humphrey Davy (1800) suggested that N₂O might have anesthetic property. 
  Chloroform was discovered by Liebig in 1831.
  Dr. Horace Wells (1844) discovered the general anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide. 

Advantages
    1.    These agents are primarily exhaled through the lungs and recovery is not dependent upon redistribution within the body and detoxification mechanisms. This is helpful in poor risk patient.
 
    2.    Anesthesiologist has good control over the anesthesia.
 
    3.    Early recovery of the patient.

    4.    Closed system available for thoracic surgery.

A sound understanding of general anesthetic emergencies and surgical techniques is vital for all practicing veterinarians. In most of the veterinary practices, after induction of anesthesia, no one is assigned the task of anesthetist to monitor anesthesia and occurrence of complications during surgery which may lead to the development of anesthetic emergencies. Onset of general anesthesia disturbs the physiological equilibrium of patient and increase the threshold of harmful events. The harmful events of anesthesia includes:

Laparoscope

The term laparoscope derived from Greek word “Laparo” meaning “flank,” which is the side of the body between the ribs and hips (abdomen) and “scope” means to look at or examine. Laparoscope can be defined as an instrument through which structures within the abdomen and pelvis can be seen or a fiber optic device that consists of a flexible tube. Fiber optic scope is used to directly visualize the internal anatomy of a hollow organ. Laparoscope is used in laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery. It has lenses like a telescope to magnify body structures, a powerful light to illuminate them and a miniature video camera. The camera sends images of the inside of the body to a TV monitor in the operating room. Specialized surgical instruments can be inserted through the laparoscope.

Among the various modern surgical methods, laparoscopy is now held as one of the most potent and promising aids for both diagnostic (laparoscopy) and therapeutic (laparoscopic surgery) use. Laparoscopy is an endoscopic procedure that bridges the gap between clinical evaluation and surgical exploration. The laparoscopic surgical techniques in both and human and veterinary medicine have grown tremendously. Laparoscopy requires a minor surgical intervention and it provides the only available practical means of making repeated direct observation of abdominal viscera. The advantage of surgical laparoscopy over the conventional open surgical laparotomy include faster patient recovery because of smaller surgical sites, decreased hospitalization, improved cosmetic, improved visualization of abdominal organs, lower postoperative morbidity with lower infection rates, and less postoperative pain and stress. Surgeons are commonly looking for more progressive and stressful surgical methods of sterilization in dogs, particularly in canine birth control programs in urban industrial areas. Demographically dense urban and industrial areas require effective animal birth control programs that can overcome the problems of hospitalization, postoperative complications and reduction in the overall cost of operation. In a large scale animal birth control program, the conventional methods of sterilization require a long period between capture of dogs and their release, due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, keyhole surgery (laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire program, as it needs only a very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings.

Application of various methods of restraints is essential to carry out certain surgical procedures on animals. A particular method of restraint suitable for one animal may proves ineffective for another. Consider the temperament, Age, breed and individual characteristic of the animal as well as purpose of the restraint.

Ultrasonography is the process of obtaining images of an area, organ or tissue with the help of ultrasound beam that can be displayed on a screen. Such images can be recorded on videocassettes or printed on a thermal paper. Ultrasonography in veterinary practice is a revolutionary step for diagnosis of various ailments and to assess normal physiological functions of the body organs of domestic animals. Ultrasonography is considered a wonderful tool particularly for the study of reproductive functions viz. follicular dynamics, pregnancy diagnosis and abnormalities of contents of tubular tract. In 1980, Palmer and Driancourt reported for the first time, real time ultrasonography for diagnosis of pregnancy in the mare. This report generated considerable interest among veterinarians and scientists about ultrasonography and this new discovery contributed significantly towards understanding of functioning of the uterus and ovaries of mare (Chevalier and Palmer, 1982; Ginther, 1983; Ginther and Pierson, 1984a & 1984b), cows (Pierson and Ginther, 1988, Reeves et al., 1984) and other species (Buckrell, 1988; Driancourt, 1991). The ultrasonography is fast replacing the age-old procedure of rectal palpation of genital tract for pregnancy diagnosis (Pieterse et al., 1990). This technique has been used and advocated for the use in the academics and field practice.

The recent availability and use of ultrasonography in veterinary science has revolutionized the study of bovine reproduction. The information- gathering capabilities of this technology are much higher than those of conventional rectal palpation. Ultrasonic imaging has provided new insights into the complex biology of various reproductive processes such as folliculogenesis and early fetal development. With the pressure on agricultural land, due to ever increasing human population, the grazing grounds for animals are fast squeezing and as a result more and more animals are being stall-fed. This practice has adversely affected the availability of essential nutrients to the animals and their reproductive efficiency. The problem is graverin small states, where pressure on land is more to accommodate the expanding developmental and commercial activities of the national capital situated next door. The routine applications of ultrasonography include evaluation of animals for pregnancy, twinning, cyclic structures on ovaries, uterine and ovarian pathologies etc.

In Doppler imaging, the reflections are from circulatory vessels, while in 2D ultrasonic image the reflection is from a tissue(s) or organ(s) In 2D ultrasound strength of reflection in B-mode depends upon density of the organ.On other hand the reflection in Doppler imaging depends upon direction of the circulation. If circulaltion is coming towards transducer, the signal will be strong, while it looses its strength while flowing away from the transducer. As shown in the diagram, the position of transducer on curved surface decides the strength or amplitude of signal. If it is positioned on curve end from where circulation is coming, the signal will be of higher amplitude, but when position is changed to other end of curved surface, where circulation is going down the amplitude of signal will decrease accordingly and is shown in reverse direction.

Principle of Doppler

Movement of blood in vessels is detected, which is depicted by color in some ultrasound machines. The flow coming towards transducer is shown above baseline, while flow going down i.e. away from transducer is shown below baseline. If position of transducer is changed from where the arterial flow is going away from transducer then, the arterial flow will be shown below baseline and venous flow that is coming towards transducer will be shown above baseline. Some machine shows red and blue color of the flow. The red color shows flow coming towards and blue color shows flow going away from transcer. A beginner ultrasonographer may think that the red color is from artery and blue is from vein. This is not true, this shows direction of flow. Since ultrasonic image of flow in Doppler is formed from series of pulses returning from vessels, the magnitude of pulse changes with variation in flow. A stationary flow will not show any height of magnitude.

Real time ultrasonography provides means to directly image the reproductive tract. An extensive amount of information can be gained from even a single examination, including determination of ovarian (luteal or follicle detection) and uterine status, detection and monitoring of ovarian and uterine pathology, monitoring the post-partum mare, detection of twins, prediction of ovulation, fetal growth and development and determination of sex of fetus. When first introduced the use of ultrasonography was primarily limited to early pregnancy diagnosis only, with advancement of knowledge and interpretive skills, the diagnostic ultrasonography has a much more application in reproduction. Some of the applications are discussed in this lecture.

Procedure

The procedure and precautions for intrarectal ultrasonographic examination are similar to those for rectal palpation, and no additional restraint is required. The transducer should be protected by the examiner’s hand to prevent trauma to the rectal wall, and the transducer should be well-lubricated. Care should be taken to avoid fecal material attaching to the transducer. After evacuating fecal material from the rectum, the probe is introduced and moved across the reproductive tract in the following pattern: uterine body, right uterine horn, right ovary, right uterine horn, uterine body, left uterine horn, left ovary, left uterine horn, uterine body then cervix. Good contact must exist between the transducer and rectal wall. Air in the rectum or a gas or fluid-filled loop of bowel will result in a distorted image. To minimize scanning errors, principally those of omission, it is recommended to conduct the same scanning procedure during each examination.

Key Points

• Provide immediate first-aid for wounds.

• For bite wounds, open healing is preferable.

• Silver nanoparticles have antibacterial properties and have been investigated for anticancer applications.

Introduction

Cuts, tears, burns, fractures, and other forms of live tissue injury are all considered wounds. Wounds are typically classified as clean, contaminated, or diseased. Clean wounds are ones that occur in sterile settings, such as surgical incisions. The quantity of germs present distinguishes between contaminated and infected wounds.

Initial Wound Management

The initial step in wound management should be to assess the animal's general stability. Obvious open wounds can divert attention away from more subtle but possibly fatal conditions (such as shock). The general health of the animal influences all areas of care and healing. Some diseases, such as anemia, may impair wound healing by lowering oxygen levels. Malnutrition may also disrupt the healing process. After the initial assessment, the patient should be stable.

3.1 Selection of Breeding Bulls

A sire is called half the herd and the breeding bulls to be used for semen production should be carefully selected. Selection of superior sire for breeding purpose is very important for the success any livestock breeding programme. Therefore, breeding sire must be carefully selected and maintained in scientific way so that its breeding life is prolonged and maximum number of frozen semen doses can be produced from it. 
The selection criteria for future bulls should be meticulously designed keeping into account all the factors/parameters which affects the breeding programme. The selection of breeding bulls is based on three broad parameters-

3.1.1 Pedigree Examination
3.1.2 Gross Physical Examination
3.1.3 Laboratory Examination

    ·    An X-ray tube is an energy converter. It receives electrical energy and converts it into two other forms: X-radiation and heat.

    ·    It is a source of X-rays used in diagnostic radiology.

    ·    Designed and constructed to maximize X-ray production and to dissipate heat as rapidly as possible.

    ·    It is a thermo ionic diode type electronic vacuum tube where X-rays are produced.
 
    ·    A basic element of an X-ray tube (Figure) consists of the cathode, anode, glass tube and tube housing.

Semen metabolic activity can be assessed with the help of the following tests:
    
15.1    Incubation test
    
15.2    Methylene Blue Reduction Test
    
15.3    Resazurine Reduction Test
    
15.4    Millovonoo’s Resistance Test (‘r’ test)
    
15.5    Fructolysis Index
    
15.6    Oxygen utilization test
    
15.7     Glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase activity

15.1 Incubation Test

The longevity and viability of spermatozoa during storage is a good index of fertilizing ability of sperm. In this test assessment of motility is carried out over a period time to obtain an idea about the length of time over which acceptable level of motility is maintained in the semen sample. Therefore, this test serves as a mean of determining storage probability within a fairly short period of time.

21.1 Liquid Nitrogen Container/ Cryocan

To store liquid nitrogen a special type of container is used and is known as a LIQUID NITROGEN CONTAI NER OR CRYOCAN. Frozen semen doses are always preserved in liquid nitrogen which is an inert liquid having a boiling point of -1960C and a freezing point of -212°C. Liquid Nitrogen Containers are doubled walled metal (Stainless Steel/Aluminium) vacuum vessels with a very efficient insulation system. Due to highly efficient insulation system the temperature inside the container can remain -196 oC as long as atleast two inches of Liquid Nitrogen is present in the container. It has got an inner chamber which is suspended in outer chamber through neck tube which is a non metal and bad conductor of heat. Walls of the inner chamber are coated with a high quality of insulation material. The space between the inner and outer chamber is also filled with high quality insulation material. Vacuum is created in between inner and outer chamber. Loss of vacuum will lead to the boiling of the liquid nitrogen gas and hence rapid loss of this gas from the inner chamber.

Key Points

• In diary animals, the health of the mammary gland (udder) is paramount.

• Any udder or teat disease state has a direct impact on milk output.

• Common udder/teet affections include: abscess, mammary gland hematomas, udder cleft dermatitis, udder edema, intramammary hemorrhage, teat damage, ulcerative mammillitis, udder dermatitis, and more.

Introduction

Mammary gland (udder) health is a crucial factor in animals used for production. The state of the udder determines the dairy industry's economics. The output of dairy animals is directly impacted by any udder ailment. Due to selection, breeding, genetic engineering, and animal management, animals under production pressure are more susceptible to a variety of diseases. More safety measures should be implemented in order to shield the udder from illness-causing factors. The many udder and teat affections and their therapeutic management are briefly discussed in this chapter.