eChapters

The semen storage technology and glass ampoules were earlier developed in USA and French, Danish and West Germany introduced straw technique and in the mean time Japanese scientists developed pellet freezing method. 

1. Ampoule method 

The diluted semen is filled in ampoules after labeling, sealed, frozen and preserved in liquid nitrogen. For insemination, the ampoule is thawed in warm water of 37^ºC until liquidation then ampoule is cut and semen is drawn into glass catheter with the help of a sterile syringe and used for insemination. In this method, semen may not be contaminated and identification of semen is easy. However, the semen is frozen in a larger volume so the freezability and fertility are less and it requires more storage space in cryocan. About 8-10% of semen is lost while thawing, loading and insemination.  Use of glass catheter for insemination is risky because chances of breaking and chances of injury to cow or inseminator and passing of catheter in the cervix.

Early research in field of semen storage and delivery systems was conducted in USA. The straw technique for the storage of frozen semen was evolved by work of French, Danish and German workers whereas the pellet system of storage of semen was devised by Japanese scientists. The different packing systems of frozen semen are:

    9.1    Ampoule method
    9.2    Pellet method
    9.3    Straw method

9.1 Ampoule Method
In this method the semen is placed in a glass ampoule and is subsequently sealed and frozen in liquid nitrogen. The ampoule is thawed just before insemination and is then cut open. The semen is withdrawn into glass catheter and used for AI. Since the ampoule is sealed there is no risk of contamination during storage. The relevant details can be marked on the ampoule.

Aim

To knw the method of softening the ring of the perpendicular Thomas splint to avoid direct trauma of the metal wire with the skin.

Materials required

Jute /thin gunny bag,bandage roll,cotton threads

Purpose of study An essential component of the diagnostic process in the evaluation of the disease process is the laboratory diagnosis of any parasitic infection. Sometimes, this confirms the presumptive clinical diagnosis, and other times, it provides evidence that the clinician may have ignored. A sufficient specimen must be used for the examination to achieve a satisfactory diagnosis. Internal parasite testing needs to be done often. Regular inspection typically enables early parasitism identification, preventing gross infection. The majority of the parasites can be accurately identified by doing a detailed examination of the faeces. Faecal sample collection and delivery for parasite identificatio

Etiology

Pemphigus foliaceous is a bullous autoimmune skin disease of canines affect ing epidermis and hair follicles. The recorded targeted auto-antigen in canine pemphigus foliaceous is desmoglein 1 (Dsg 1). This auto-antibody binds to Dsg 1 which is a prominent component of desmosome in the superficial layer of epidermis and hair follicle. It may be due to loss of intercellular cohesion leading to acantholysis followed by formation of superficial vesicles and bul lae. The common sites for the development of pemphigus in dogs are dorsal lateral muzzle, temporal, planum nasale, pinnae, periorbital skin and paw pads.

Perianal gland tumors originate around the anus of the dog, upper and lower part of the tail and prepucial area. Retention of gonadal hormone receptors is one of the causes for perianal gland adenoma and adenocarcinoma.Cytology reveals the presence of hepatoid cells with centrally placed nuclei and prominent nucleoli. A small flattened reserve cells or resting cells are also noticed around the hepatoid cells. In malignant variety, the cells containing large vesicular nuclei, eosinophilic granular cytoplasm and binucleated cells, mitotic figures, reserve cells, moderate stroma and lymphoplasmacytic infiltration are seen (Figure 55 & 56).

Peritoneal Fluid Peritoneal fluid (PTF) is an ultra-filtrate of plasma. The amount of the fluid and its constituents depends on oncotic and hydrostatic pressures, vascular permeability, mesothelial lining integrity, and lymphatic drainage. In healthy animals, the amount of peritoneal fluid is negligible making its aspiration difficult. However, in large animals, a small volume (up to 5ml) can be aspirated. Volumes of 10ml or above may indicate a pathological process in the abdominal cavity, unless the animal is in late pregnancy. Indications for collection and analysis The collection and analysis of peritoneal fluid is important in the diagnosis of diseases of the peritoneum and the abdominal segment of alimentary tract .Increased accumulation of peritoneal fluid may be evident in congestive heart failure, peritonitis, nephrotic syndrome,

Key Points

• When pesticides, which are chemicals used to manage a pest, impact non-target organisms like humans and animals, it's known as pesticide poisoning.

• Pesticides have the ability to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem.

Introduction

Pesticides are chemical chemicals that are applied to destroy pests. These insecticides have the capacity to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem. Pesticides can also be hazardous to a wide range of other creatures, including fish, birds, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, in addition to having a toxic effect on insects and weeds.

Etiology

Today's society faces several issues due to the overuse of pesticides in fields and food. Products may deteriorate if they are kept in partially filled containers for extended periods of time or exposed, whether intentionally or unintentionally, to high temperatures. It is dangerous to store chemicals anywhere other than their original container since the identification and label instructions are lost. These products can have severe effects on people or animals if they come into unintended touch with them. It can be extremely risky to mix substances or use them in unapproved combinations. In order to increase the efficacy of certain pesticide formulations, such as pyrethrins, pyrethroids, and d-limonene, piperonyl butoxide is added. It lessens the chemical's breakdown in the body of the insect or animal, but it also increases the pesticide's toxicity to both the pest and the host animal.

Definition

Fracture of humerus and femeur bone has been grouped under higher level fracture. Pinning as well as Thomas splint application are considered to be the approved method of immobilization for repair of these bone fracture.

Both method of repair are highly essential. Any one method of repair has been considered dangerous for the animal. Only pinning of the bone makes the limb to be turked where as only Thomas splint application disturbes the bone alignment at fracture site. Hence leaving one method of repair other method is not possible.

When above method of repair is not possible a modification of velpue sling can be attempted.

Fracture of scapula, shoulder dislocation, fracture of pelvic girdle, hip dislocation have been grouped under highest level fracture.

For large animal, immobilization of bone & joint have not been developed satisfactorily/ till date. Hence after correction of dislocation or rearrangement of fractured the site Is kept immobilized with application of gum bandage.

Ultrasound is important tool for diagnosis and research that can be compared with other tools like radio-immunoassays. This has become an important tool applicable to farm and pet animals. Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images of soft tissues and internal organs. Electric current is applied to crystals in the transducer, producing vibrations characteristic of the crystals and resulting in sound waves. The sound beams that pass through the tissues are quite thin and a thin “slice” of tissue is sampled. The two dimensional image produced by ultrasound resemble to histological section. The sound waves are propagated or reflected by various tissues in different ways depending on their thickness and composition. The transducer receives those reflections and converts into electric signals and produces an echo on the ultrasound screen. Grey - scale is the term used for monochrome monitors on which a number of grey shades are distinguishable between black and white and constitute the image of reflected portion of tissue. Non-ecogenic (non echoic) tissues like fluids do not reflect sound waves and appear black on the screen. The echogenic tissues, having dense consistency, appear white as they reflect most portion of sound beam. Sometimes the artifacts create problem in the real image of the organ. These artifacts are created by certain tissues that cause bending or back and forth bouncing or blocking of sound beams. For imaging the reproductive tract of the domestic animals, B-mode (brightness modality), real time scanners are used. The amplitude of returning beams is reflected in the brightness of the dots on the screen. B-mode modulates brightness of the dots or pixels on the screen of echo displayer. The echo signals are presented as brightness of pixel corresponding to the amplitude of signal. The picture should be adjusted for clear display. In B-mode display the time-base brightness should be reduced just below the threshold of visibility so that even the smallest echoes could be visible.

Introduction
Ageing, a multifaceted and intricate process, is characterized by a series of transformations that occur at various levels of biological hierarchy, ultimately culminating in death. This phenomenon, marked by its complexity, involves numerous factors that interact simultaneously and operate across different levels of functional organization. The diversity of ageing phenotypes among individuals of the same species and the disparities in longevity
among different species underscore the significant roles of both genetic and environmental influences in shaping the lifespan.At its core, ageing is an ontogenic journey—a process of growing old that encompasses all physiological, genetic, and molecular changes occurring from fertilization to death. The biology of ageing pertains to the progressive accumulation of random molecular defects within tissues and cells, leading to age-related functional impairments in tissues and organs. This relentless, deleterious, and intrinsic phenomenon was famously described by Medawar in 1952 as an “unsolved problem in biology.” Despite the enduring mystery of the ageing process, research has advanced significantly since Medawar’s time, expanding our understanding of this intricate biological conundrum.
Goldberger et al. (2002) define senescence as the progressive deterioration of bodily functions over time, noting that normal human ageing is associated with a loss of complexity in various physiological processes and anatomical structures. Although ageing and senescence are often used interchangeably, they encompass distinct concepts. Senescence refers to a post-maturational process that leads to diminished homeostasis and increased vulnerability to death, while ageing encompasses any time-related process that begins at conception and continues until death. The mechanisms driving ageing are partially intrinsic, influenced by genetic and epigenetic factors, and partially extrinsic, shaped by environmental factors such as nutrition, radiation, temperature, and stress. Genetic factors account for approximately 25% of the variance in human lifespan, with the remainder determined by nutritional and environmental influences. 

Introduction
The genetic code and protein synthesis are fundamental processes that underlie the
expression of genetic information within all living organisms. These processes are integral
to understanding how DNA, the hereditary material, dictates the production of proteins,
which are essential molecules that carry out various functions in the body, from structural
support to catalyzing biochemical reactions.
Genetic Code
The genetic code consists of rules that guide the translation of information stored in
DNA or RNA sequences into proteins within living cells. It is nearly universal across
all organisms, underscoring the shared evolutionary origins of life. The genetic code is
composed of codons, which are sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA (messenger
RNA) that correspond to specific amino acids or stop signals during protein synthesis.
Each of the 20 amino acids used in protein synthesis is encoded by one or more codons.
For instance, the codon AUG not only codes for the amino acid methionine but also serves
as the start signal for translation, marking the beginning of a protein-coding sequence. The
redundancy of the genetic code, where multiple codons can specify the same amino acid,
provides a protective mechanism against mutations, as some changes in the nucleotide
sequence do not alter the resulting protein.
Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells construct proteins based on the instructions
encoded in mRNA. This process takes place in two primary stages: transcription and
translation.
Transcription: Transcription is the first step of gene expression, where a particular segment
of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. During transcription, one
of the two DNA strands serves as a template for the formation of a complementary RNA
strand, This newly synthesized RNA strand, known as pre-mRNA, undergoes further
processing, including splicing, capping, and addition of a poly-A tail, to become mature
mRNA, which is then exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. In
contrast, in prokaryotes, both transcription and translation occur within the cytoplasm.

Introduction
Cell Cycle: Growth at the cellular level involves the cell cycle, which includes phases of growth (G1), DNA replication (S), and cell division (M). During these phases, cells prepare for and execute division to increase cell numbers. Mitosis and Meiosis: Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells, crucial for tissue growth and repair. Meiosis, on the other hand, is essential for producing gametes (sperm and eggs) and ensures genetic diversity.
Hormonal Regulation
Growth Hormone (GH): Secreted by the pituitary gland, GH stimulates liver cells toproduce insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which promotes cell growth and division throughout the body.
Thyroid Hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) from the thyroid gland regulate metabolic rate and are vital for normal growth and development, particularly in the nervous system.
Sex Hormones: Estrogens and androgens influence the growth of secondary sexual characteristics and contribute to the final stages of skeletal growth during puberty.
Nutritional Factors
Proteins: Amino acids from dietary proteins are necessary for the synthesis of new proteins and enzymes, which are crucial for cell growth and repair.
Vitamins: Vitamins such as A, C, and D are essential for various growth processes. For instance, vitamin D is vital for bone growth and calcium absorption.
Minerals: Calcium and phosphorus are key for bone development, while zinc and iron are important for cellular functions and overall growth.
Genetic Factors
Genetic Blueprint: Growth patterns and potential are largely determined by genetic factors. Genes influence growth rates, final height, and the development of various body structures.
Growth Disorders: Genetic mutations or abnormalities can lead to growth disorders such as dwarfism or gigantism, illustrating the role of genetics in growth regulation.

Introduction
Intracellular transport of molecules plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function and organization. The genetic and biochemical processes that regulate membrane trafficking, such as membrane bending, budding, fusion, and fission, ensure the efficient movement of molecules within cells. Despite substantial advances in understanding the molecular aspects of these processes, the broader, or “supramolecular,” regulation of membrane trafficking, which coordinates the overall balance and response to environmental changes, remains less explored. This involves the transport and exchange of membranes and proteins betweenorganelles in a highly organized manner, critical for maintaining cellular homeostasis.
Membrane Trafficking Pathways
Membrane trafficking consists of well-defined pathways connecting cellular compartments like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, and the plasma membrane (PM). Proteins and lipids are transferred from the ER to the Golgi and then directed either to the PM or other intracellular destinations. These pathways must be tightly regulated to maintain cellular balance, as any disruptions in membrane flow can lead to cellular dysfunction. In addition to routine cellular maintenance, these pathways must adapt to signals from the environment, ensuring that cells respond appropriately to external stimuli.

Physiotherapy may be defined as the use of physical techniques like massage, exercise, heat, cold, sound waves, electric current etc for the treatment of injuries and movement dysfunction. Physiotherapy deals with the treatment of diseases by physical methods. It is used for treating injuries, strain, spasm, painful conditions, sprain of tendons, paralysis, postoperative trauma etc. It improves functioning of nerve, muscles and bones. The aim of physical therapy is the restoration of function and promotion of tissue healing by assisting normal physiological processes. The physiological response to physical therapy is its effect on the vascular supply; this in turn reproduces similar changes in deeper tissues.

The progress of AI organization depends upon the type of service over and above that initially expected by the members. A well-conducted field service is very important in expanding the growth of any breeding organization. It includes activities as publicity, cooperation in health control, production testing and culling and progeny appraisal, the holding of demonstrations and open house and participation in cattle shows. The salary of a technician with bonus incentive encourages to do work of a high order. The semen costs per inseminated cow can be reduced by maintaining highest quality standards in producing, processing and shipping, by increasing number of cow serviced and by cutting all unnecessary costs. When breeding efficiency is high, the required amount of semen is kept at a minimum. An increase in cows inseminated is a key factor in keeping an organization in the back.

Introduction

Tissue culture refers to the technique of growing cells, tissues, or organs under controlled, artificial conditions. This allows propagation of tissues from a small sample of cells/tissues under sterile conditions. Plant tissue culture is widely used for various purposes, including the production of disease-free plants, rapid multiplication of plants with desirable traits, genetic modification, conservation of rare or endangered species, etc. Tissue culture is a valuable technique because it enables consistent and large-scale production of plants, ensures genetic uniformity, and allows manipulation of plant biology at cellular level. In this chapter, we will discuss about the major types of tissue culture techniques and their advantages, disadvantages, as well as applications in brief.

Different Types of Tissue Culture

Callus culture involves induction and growing of unorganized, undifferentiated cell masses from an explant on a nutrient/culture medium. The part of plant used to induce callus is called explant which can be tissue, organ or part of a plant.

Organ culture is used to maintain or grow an entire organ or a part of organ in vitro. It preserves the structure and function of the organ for studies or transplantation.

Embryo culture involves isolating and growing embryos from seeds or ovules in a nutrient medium. It is used to bypass seed dormancy or rescue embryos from hybrid crosses that may not develop naturally.

Cell suspension culture involves growing dispersed cells or small cell clusters in a liquid medium under continuous shaking. This is used for large-scale production of cells, secondary metabolites, and studying cell biology..