eChapters

Heart of bovine, caprine, equine, canine and feline is a four chambered organ having left and right atrium, left and right ventricles, mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, pulmonary valve, arteries, arterioles, veins and venules. Heart starts its functioning even before birth and continues till death. Its pumping action helps in providing nutrients as well as oxygen to all organs and parts of the body and to remove the waste products of the metabolism from the different organs of the body. Malfunctioning of the heart (pumping action and /or current generation and conduction) adversely affects nutrient and oxygen availability to organs and removal of waste products from the body lowering the quality of life and making the survival reasonably difficult. Heart functioning can be examined through physical examination of the heart such as general inspection (looking for abducted elbow, jugular distension or pulse, edema of ventral abdomen or limbs, tachypnea /dyspnea), evaluations of vitals (temperature, pulse, respiration,

Musculoskeletal system consists of muscles, cartilage, bones, joints ligaments and tendons. Primary function of the musculoskeletal system is to support the body, helps in mobility, and protects vital organs of the body. Diseases of these organs have clinical manifestations such as lameness, failure to support weight, inefficient joint movement and deformity. Examination of musculoskeletal system includes general as well as special examination. General examination consists of examination of posture in sitting/recumbency, standing position and while rising; examination of gait; and any other abnormality. General Examination The animal is observed for conformation (outline and shape), symmetry and posture in standing position from the cranial, caudal and lateral positions. Asymmetrical shape of the body or limbs may be due to swelling that should be examined by palpation,

Besides physical examination, there are many diagnostic techniques for making a specific diagnosis of respiratory diseases. The specialized techniques are used by the specialists. These specialized examination techniques include collection of nasal and brochoalveolar samples either using nasopharyngeal swab or flexible fiber endoscopy and their laboratory examination; pleuroscopy; thoracocentesis; thoracic radiography; and thoracic sonography. Collection of Respiratory Tract Discharges/Fluid The respiratory tract discharges (nasal, bronchoalveolar fluid) can be collected using nasopharyngeal swabs and flexible fiber optic endoscope or flexible tube. Nasopharyngeal swab collection Nasopharyngeal swabs have been used to identify PI3 and IBR infections. Pasteurella isolates may be commensals. Bronchoalveolar samples are more exact than nasopharyngeal swabs in identifying

Sperm abnormalities may be genetical or morphological. They are directly related to the male infertility. • The wet mount method and phase contrast microscopy facilitate sperm visualization for abnormalities. Semen stained with vital stain can also be used for evaluating sperm abnormalities. Sperm morphology or related abnormalities can be evaluated by using eosin-nigrosine stain, carbolfuschin, aniline blue-eosine etc. • Generally, for head and tail abnormalities rose Bengal and William’s stain can be used while for acrosome and head abnormalities Giemsa stain can be used. Categorization of Sperm Abnormalities 1. On the basis of site of abnormality on the spermatozoa • Head abnormalities e.g. microcephalic head, macrocephalic/giant head, narrow or short sperm head, pyriform head, detached glea capitis (acrosomal cap), detached head and double head etc

13.1 The Normal Sperm Morphology

A mature spermatozoa is an elongated cell consisting of a flattened head containing the nucleus, a neck and a tail containing the apparatus necessary for cell motility. The sperm cell consists of the following parts covered by the plasmalemma or plasma membrane: 
    
13.1.1    Head
    
13.1.2    Neck
    
13.1.3    Tail / flagellum – The sperm tail consist of     
    
a.    Mid piece
    
b.     Main piece / Principal piece
    
c.     End piece

Sperm Plasma Membrane

The sperm plasma membrane is three layered membrane. It lies in close contact with the underlying cytoplasm and attached at three places i.e. over anterior outline of the sperm head, around the base of the head, in circle around the distal end of the midpiece (Jensen’s ring). This attachment causes creation of three compartments with probably no communication with each other. The sperm plasma membrane is invisible under normal light or phase contrast microscopy but can be visualized after addition of substances with light refractory index e.g. bovine plasma albumin or synthetic polysaccharides. It is very easily permeable to water but there is low permeability for inorganic cations (Na, K, Ca etc.) and even lower permeability for anions (NO3, Cl). Exposure of sperm cells to hypertonic media will cause the water to go from sperm to the surrounding media leading to shrinkage of sperm cell whereas exposure of sperm cells to hypotonic media will induce influx of water causing swelling of the sperm cell. The more water that goes into the tail the more it changes its shape and becomes rounded to give room for increasing amount of water. As the length of the tail decreases as it becomes round, the tail fibrils have less space and tail bends and coils within the membrane vesicle. Tail fibrils are not damaged initially and will continue to contract till the critical volume of bull sperm is 3.8-3.9 times of its volume in an isotonic solution. The swelling and change in shape of the spermatozoa are momentary processes and can be corrected if hypotonicity of the media is corrected before the sperm cells reach the critical volume for rupture.

Sperm membrane is responsible for maintenance of the intracellular biochemical environment. Damaged plasma membrane is responsible for the leakage of electrolytes and organic substances such as enzymes and may also lead to damage of sperm cells by foreign substances from the surrounding media.

Semen • Semen, a fluid released from the male reproductive system during ejaculation, is made up of a liquid phase called seminal plasma and a cellular component called spermatozoa. • The term “spermatocrit” refers to the percentage of spermatozoa(v/v) in semen, which varies from less than 2% in pigs to more than 30% in sheep. It is about 10% in bull. Semen= Spermatozoa + seminal plasma Spermatozoon • In 1677, the scientist Van Leeuwenhoek first discovered the spermatozoa and called them ‘‘animalacula’’. • Spermatozoa or sperm cells or male gametes, develop within the wall of the seminiferous tubules as a result of a complex process known as spermatogenesis. • The spermatozoon is a highly specialized cell that performs the sole function of fertilizing an oocyte.

Sprain : It is defined as a joint injury in which fibers of supporting ligaments of the joint are ruptured by direct or indirect trauma. Depending upon the degree of ligament rupture, sprain can be classified as follows: 

This tumour may occur due to specific mutation in the p53 tumor suppressor gene. This is one of the most common epithelial tumor of dog. It is classified into well differentiated, moderately differentiated and poorly differentiated tumour.

1. Introduction
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a systematic quality system essential for
ensuring the reliability, consistency, and integrity of laboratory data, particularly when the findings are used for regulatory decision-making. GLP ensures that laboratory studies are conducted in a scientific manner, maintaining high standards of ethical practice, precision, and reproducibility, with a primary focus on ensuring public and environmental safety. Introduced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1978, GLP gained global recognition through the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which established guidelines for its implementation. GLP principles are now widely adopted in regulatory testing for pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food safety, and environmental testing. The OECD’s guidance on GLP has been instrumental in developing standards across the globe, ensuring that test results are scientifically valid and can be accepted internationally. In Asia, particularly in India and other developing countries, GLP compliance has gained increasing importance as pharmaceutical, environmental, and chemical industries expand. Regulatory bodies in these regions have gradually aligned their standards with international norms to ensure their competitiveness in global markets. This chapter discusses the key SOPs necessary for GLP compliance and provides a regional perspective, focusing on India and other Asian nations, where GLP frameworks are evolving to meet international standards.
2. Objective of GLP
The overarching objective of GLP is to ensure that laboratory data is accurate, reliable, and reproducible across different studies. The scientific and regulatory communities rely on GLP to ensure that findings from preclinical studies and safety evaluations can be trusted and utilized for regulatory approval.
The key objectives of GLP include
• Accuracy and Integrity of Data: GLP ensures that every aspect of data collection, analysis, and reporting is conducted with integrity and accuracy, preventing errors or falsification that could affect regulatory decisions.

Introduction
Stem cells are the undifferentiated cells of the body which have inherent capacity to differentiate and proliferate into any cell type under programmed command. These cells perpetuate themselves through self-renewal by programmed pathways to give rise to new adult cells (Remya et al., 2014). According to plasticity, the stem cells are categorised into totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent and unipotent. Broadly they can also be classified as embryonic stem cells and adult somatic stem cells. Totipotent stem cells are those which can give rise to all types of cells along with placental membranes whereas pluripotent stem cells give rise to all cell types except placental membranes. The multipotent set of stem cells can give rise to more than one cell type and unipotent ones can differentiate into only one type of cells. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which fall under the multipotent stem cells category, have the multilineage potential to differentiate into many mesenchymal lineages like osteocytes, chondrocytes, adipocytes etc. (Kim et. al., 2013). They can be easily isolated from the adipose tissues, bone marrows, muscles, liver, umbilical cords, lungs etc. and can be easily proliferated in vitro. MSCs were first identified from the bone marrow in a pioneering study by Fredenstein et al (1976) who isolated the bone forming progenitor cells from rat bone marrow. Although the MSCs represent very small fraction of 0.001-0.01% of total nucleated marrow cells, they can be isolated and differentiated into multiple lineages under defined culture conditions. They are generally isolated from iliac crest, tibial and femoral marrow compartments along with thoracic and lumbar spine in large animals. Stem cells have been used for cellular therapy and tissue engineering for quite a period of time owing to their regeneration potential. They are unspecialized cells with the ability to renew themselves for long periods without significant changes in their general properties. These cells under the influence of appropriate signals can differentiate into specialized cells with a phenotype distinct from that of the precursor (Kim et al., 2013). It may be that stem

Sterilization is a process of killing all microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and their spores, and viruses from animate or inanimate surfaces with the use of either physical or chemical agents. Joseph Lister first gave antiseptic principle in 1867.

Introduction
A study protocol tool is a very important comprehensive document that deliberately outlines the whole research rationale design and plan for the successful execution of the epidemiological/ an experimental/ a clinical study. It serves as a blueprint for how the study will be conducted, ensuring consistency, transparency, and adherence to ethical guidelines. The document contains the background information available in literatures on the basis of which the researchers plan to conduct the study with objectives that will answer research related questions with ensuring adherence to ethical standards.
Basic Elements of a Study Protocol
The study protocol includes different components including background Information available in literature for research plan, objectives or purpose of conducting the research, explanation of the study design, selection and exclusion of subjects, treatment of subjects, assessment of outcome safety and efficacy. The purpose of conducting research includes questions like why the study needs to be done and what will be its relevance to scientific society or environment. To achieve these objectives the researchers, design their research work for proper execution of research objectives. The study which is to be designed has structured framework for researchers to answer their research questions and obtain reliable and valid results. The study design not only helps the researcher in learning technical skills but also discovering the creative voice (planning and execution). The study design includes different methods, processes and necessary resources for accomplishment of research problems. The study design also incorporates the methods of data collection and statistical analysis which meets the requirements of desired outcome. The implementation of an appropriate study design guarantees a methodical and exacting research process, resulting in more precise findings and the appropriate type of analysis to address the research-related queries. This makes the conclusions more reliable and legitimate. By ensuring that the data are reliable, repeatable, and validated, a well-designed study contributes to the advancement of knowledge. Additionally, it helps to control biases and confounding variables that could affect the results and helps to clarify the methodology of the study, which

Sub estrus (Weak or Silent Estrus) is a condition in which there are normal cyclical changes in the reproductive organs of a cow but the heat signs are not exhibited to a level of intensity as in normal cows leading to failure of estrus detection by a farmer. This condition is common during post partum period. It is a common reproductive problem in cattle affecting the productivity and economics of a cow due to increase in inter-calving interval, production loss, treatment expenses etc.

1: extensor carpi radialis

2: m. extensor digiti III propr.

2: its tendon

3: m. extensor digiti communis

3: its tendon

4: m. extensor digiti IV. propr.

4’: its tendon :

5: m. ulnaris lateralis

Etiology

It is caused by Staphylococci spp- characterized by superficial pyoderma in dogs. It is mainly due to exfoliative toxins of S? aureus.

Gross pathology

The lesion reveals cutaneous exfoliation, vesicles, pustules (Figure 6) and crust.

Etiology

Superficial pyoderma usually occurs in the epidermis and upper infundibulum of the hair follicle. It usually heals without scar formation and commonly caused by Gram positive cocci Staphylococcus spp., particularly exfoliative toxin of this species.

Indication: Rehabilitation of downer animal

Good cataract outcome depends on pre-operative selection of patients, the skills and knowledge of the eye surgeon, the surgical technique, the surgical facilities and environment, the post-operative care and the optical correction provided.

Preoperative Procedures

Owners are advised to instill antibiotic eye drop such as Moxifloxacin @ two drops b.i.d. for 7 days and eye drop tropicamide @ two drops b.i.d. for 2 days before the cataract surgery for proper dilation of pupil. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory eye drops such as Flubriprofenis started t.i.d on the day before surgery. Further, tropicamide (1%) used as mydriatic agent is instilled 30 minutes before operation at the rate of two drops every 5 minutes in the eye to be operated. 0.5% povidone iodine drops are instilled on cornea prior to surgery.