eChapters

1.1. Introduction

Wildlife management often requires interventions to safely handle and transport animals. Chemical restraint, also known as immobilization or tranquilization, is a technique widely used to facilitate these processes (Hernandez, 2014). It involves the administration of drugs to temporarily immobilize wild animals, allowing for various procedures such as veterinary medical examinations, tagging, relocation, or rehabilitation. This chapter provides an overview of the principles, methods, drugs, and considerations involved in the chemical restraint of wild animals.

It has been often stated that the most important techniques required by the zoo veterinarian are those used in the capture and restraint of the patient. These techniques have developed into a highly technical science (Clarke et al., 2014). In the early days of zoos, the only practical method was to manually catch and hold the patient. Modern techniques, however, permit a veterinarian to shoot a CO2 powered gun, which discharges a projectile syringe at an animal resulting in complete immobilization of the animal (Jacques et al., 2009). This is accomplished without any physical contact between the patient and his captors.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Key Points

• Dogs can be fed a wide variety of chocolate and cocoa-based goods, particularly during holiday seasons, such as candy, cakes, cookies, brownies, and chocolate chips.

• Dogs that eat chocolate usually become very sick, but they also seldom die from it.

Introduction

Caffeine and theobromine are found in chocolate. Dogs' metabolisms of caffeine and theobromine differ from humans'. Because they contain more theobromine and caffeine, darker, bitter chocolates are considered to be more dangerous.

When a dog consumes too much chocolate goods, it can lead to major health problems like seizures, heart failure, and muscular tremors. In extreme situations, the dog may even pass away from cardiac or respiratory failure. Due to the fat and sugar content, it induces vomiting and diarrhoea even in non-toxic doses. Numerous substances found in chocolate are hazardous to animals. Although chocolate poisoning can affect a wide variety of animal species, including dogs, cats, horses, and rodents, it most frequently affects dogs. Theobromine and caffeine are the main harmful ingredients in chocolate. The amount of caffeine and theobromine in chocolate varies with kind. Dogs' metabolism of theobromine and caffeine differs from that of humans. Dogs are more sensitive because of this. Dogs who consume chocolate may become seriously unwell, even though it rarely results in death. When a dog eats too many chocolate-containing foods, such as cakes, cookies, brownies, candies, and chocolate chips, it might become poisoned.

CMTs can be classified on the basis of morphologic features, tissue of origin (epithelial, myoepithelial or mesenchymal tissue) or prognosis. The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of canine and feline mammary tumors has categorized CMT into three major categories i) malignant, ii) benign and iii) unclassified tumors. On the basis of histological characteristics, the mammary tumors have been classified into fibroadenomas, adenomas, solid carcinomas (with transformed epithelial cells), tubular adenocarcinomas (with tubule like arrangements), papillary adenocarcinomas (having papillary like projections), anaplastic carcinomas (with highly pleomorphic cells), sarcomas (involvement of connective tissue) and malignant tumors (Fig. 2). Fibroadenomas and adenomas are the types of benign mammary tumors the former contains some connective tissues component in between, and carcinomas, adenocarcinomas and sarcomas come under malignant tumors.

1. True bone tumours. Neoplasms arising from cells of mesenchymal origin, derived from a common ancestry and whose function is primarily skeletal boen formation. These tumours fall into four main groups according to the predominant cell type present. By reason of the mutability of the cells metaplasia is common and intermediate stages are found.

Classification of fracture and its repair in large animal practice by external completion method.

Aim

To know the different level of fracture limbs. In order to access their method of repair (Fig.1).

Complete fracture- It is a fracture in which there is complete loss of bone continuity and the bone is divided into two or more fragments (Fig.1).

Green stick fracture- It is the fracture in which, the cortex opposite to the bending force fractures completely, while the cortex under the force remains in tact, commonly seen in immature animals, (Fig-2)

Overriding fracture-A fracture in which the fragments lie side by side, causing shortening of limb (Fig-3)

Transverse fracture-The fracture line here runs transverse to the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending forces (Fig-4).

Oblique fracture- In this the fracture line runs oblique to the long axis of the bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending with axial compression (Fig-5).

Spiral fracture-Here the fracture line spirals along the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by torsion, twisting or rotational forces e.g. in humorous (Fig-6)

Comminuted fracture- In this fracture, at least three fracture lines inter connect each other at one point (Fig-7).

Immediately after use, all sorts of items are thoroughly washed with water and the rubber catheters are washed with the force of tap water to remove the residual diluted semen. The glass wares are kept in 1% chromic acid solution for overnight to remove cloudiness of glass surface. Then the articles are washed with lukewarm laboratory grade detergent (ex. Labolene®) with a brush to make the articles grease free. All the items are thoroughly washed several times under distilled water and kept inverted position in a clean trough then the openings of glassware wrapped with aluminum foil / paper.

The equipments used in artificial insemination should be clean and sterilized. The use of unsterilized equipments in AI causes the spread of infection in the herd and infertility. Rinse the equipments with tap water immediately after use and then lukewarm detergent solution. The detergent used for washing the AI equipments should be non corrosive. Use of corrosive detergents will reduce half-life of the plastic and rubber wares. Wash thoroughly with tap water till the equipments become grease free and perfectly clean. Then rinse in distilled water at least thrice. Use of distilled water does not leave any salt residues on articles after drying.

Introduction
Cleavage is the process of cellular division without growth. It is also called segmentation division and it follows immediately after fertilization. By the end of this process, single cell zygote is transformed into multi-cellular stage called blastula. Daughter cells are called blastomeres. All divisions are mitotic and occur consequently. Ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm is very low at beginning but later they resemble somatic cell. Cleavage division always start at animal pole. Cleavage can be classified as:
1. Holoblastic/Total cleavage: Whole fertilized ovum is involved in production of blastomere. It is also called complete cleavage.
a) Equal: All blastomeres are of equal size. E.g. mammals
b) Unequal: Some blastomeres at vegetal pole are larger. E.g. amphibians
2. Meroblastic/Partial cleavage: When deutoplasm is abundant and only a part of fertilized ovum is involved in cleavage, it is called meroblastic cleavage.
a) Discoidal: Cleavage is confined to the germinal disc i.e. at animal pole. E.g. birds and reptiles.
b) Superficial: Cleavage is confined to the peripheral margin of cytoplasm. E.g. arthropods.
Dividing continuously, embryo attains a stage of 16-32 cells. 16-celled stage is called early/uncompact morula and 32-celled stage is called compact morula. This stage is called morula due to its close resemblance to mulberry fruit. Structure is surrounded by zona pellucida.
After morula stage, fluid accumulation begins and blastomeres are gradually pushed to the periphery. As fluid accumulation progresses further, it leads to formation of large cavity in central part of embryo known as blastocoels and morula stage is now transformed into blastula/blastocyst stage. Blastomeres now arrange themselves as single celled outer layer called trophoblast and small group of cells at animal pole called inner cell mass (ICM). Trophoblasts give rise to fetal membranes and will help embryo in its attachment to uterine wall (implantation). ICM gives rise to all organs of body. Development of blastula is called blastulation.

The skin is the largest organ of the body that plays an important role in defending the body against minor physical injuries, providing some defense against microbial invasion, maintenance of homeostasis, water conservation, temperature conservation, supporting hair growth and heat loss. Changes in the secretion of sebaceous glands lead to compromised defence. Abnormalities of the skin may arise from specific skin disease or by the poor general health status. Therefore, a detailed clinical examination of the animal as a whole and of its skin in particular, is an essential part of the process of diagnosis. The skin has three main layers starting from outside as the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutis. The epidermis consists largely of epithelial cells and pigment. The dermis is a connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands. The inner most subcutis contains fibrous and fatty tissues that provides insulation and support. In healthy animals, the skin has considerable elasticity. It reduces in dehydration and inflammation / injury to skin. General clinical examination should be carried out first as a routine followed by special examination

RECTAL EXAMINATION

It provides practically all the information required.

It is the simplest, accurate and reliable method with no cost involved.

Things Required

A full arm rubber sleeve with attached glove or disposable plastic glove.
A rubber or plastic apron.
Non-irritant soap or lubricant.

Collections of blood To collect blood for different haematological analyses, an animal’s vein are punctured with a syringe and needle. Requirements • Hypodermic needle • Syringe • Collection vials or tubes containing anticoagulantsProcedure • The place of blood collection should always be cleaned with alcohol and hairs trimmed. • Press on the vein to raise it. • Free-flowing blood can be collected directly into the vial containing anticoagulant after the needle is inserted into the vein. • 5 ml of blood from large animals and 2.0 ml of blood from small animals like dogs and cats are sufficient for normal haematological investigations. • Rotational motions in the vials are used to mix the blood

• General considerations

 • Direct examination

 • Culture methods

 • Some important tests used in identification of bacteria

 • Characteristics of some organisms

 • Gram positive cocci

 • Gram positive rods

 • Gram negative rods

 • Mycobacteria

 • Leptospira/spirochete

 • Rickettsia

 • Chlamydia

 • Mycoplasma

 • Fungi

 • Virus

 • Antibacterial sensitivity testing

Introduction
Heart failure can develop as a complication of almost all congenital and acquired cardiac diseases in dogs and cats. Cardiac disease is a significant global health concern, impacting both humans and domestic animals, particularly dogs. In the animal kingdom, the cardiovascular system consists of essential components, including the heart, veins, arteries, and capillary beds. Its proper function depends on complex mechanisms, such
as the atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) and the semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonic), which ensure that blood flows in only one direction through the heart. The activity of the cardiovascular system, including heart contraction rates and strengths, as well as blood vessel diameter adjustments, is regulated by the autonomic nervous system (both sympathetic and parasympathetic branches) and various hormones.
The strength of ventricular contractions is influenced by several factors, primarily enddiastolic volume (preload) and myocardial contractility (inotropy). Preload is the amount of blood in the ventricles just before they contract, while contractility refers to the ability of the heart muscle fibers to contract. Preload is determined by the difference between the end-diastolic pressure in the ventricle and the pressure in the pleural space, adjusted for the
stiffness of the ventricular myocardium. This pressure is influenced by the ratio of blood volume to the heart muscle’s compliance. Low-pressure volume receptors in the heart and large veins primarily regulate preload. When these receptors detect increased blood volume or vein distension, they trigger responses such as increased urine production and vein dilation, which help reduce blood volume and lower venous pressures. Increased enddiastolic volume (preload) stretches the ventricular wall, enhancing contraction strength through the Frank-Starling mechanism, or Starling’s law of the heart. This stretching activates receptors in the atria and ventricles, leading to the release of natriuretic peptides like brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) from the ventricles and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) from the atria) These peptides promote natriuresis, relax smooth muscle, and counteract
vasopressin and angiotensin II. In dogs, levels of BNP and NT-proBNP are directly related to cardiac stretch.

Introduction
The digestive system is essential for the survival and overall health of all animals, and its proper function is crucial for the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. In monogastric animals-those with a single-chambered stomach, such as dogs, cats, pigs, and horses-the digestive process is both complex and finely tuned to meet their specific nutritional needs. Understanding the clinical physiology of digestive disorders in monogastric animals is vital for veterinary professionals, animal caretakers, and researchers, as it enables them to recognize, iagnose, and treat various gastrointestinal conditions that may impact these 
species. This introduction provides an overview of the fundamental aspects of digestive physiology in monogastric animals, outlines common digestive disorders, and highlights the importance of this knowledge in clinical practice.
The digestive tract of monogastric animals consists of several organs that work together to break down food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste. The primary components include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated glands such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase to initiate the breakdown of carbohydrates. The bolus of food is then transported through the esophagus to the stomach via coordinated muscular contractions known as peristalsis. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric secretions, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes like pepsin, which help break down proteins. The stomach’s acidic environment also plays a critical role in killing pathogens and aiding the digestion of certain nutrients, such as vitamin B12. The stomach of monogastric animals differs from that of ruminants, as it does not possess multiple compartments for fermentation but rather relies on enzymatic digestion.
The chyme (partially digested food) passes into the small intestine, where most digestion and nutrient absorption occur. The small intestine is composed of three segments-the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum-each with specialized functions. Enzymes secreted by the pancreas and bile from the liver facilitate the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The intestinal lining, with its villi and microvilli, maximizes the surface area for nutrient absorption.

Introduction
In cattle, the digestive system consists of four primary compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, followed by the small and large intestines. The rumen plays a crucial role as a fermentation chamber, maintaining anaerobic conditions and ensuring thorough mixing, as well as regulating temperature and pH levels. Food, which is frequently re-chewed, enters the rumen through the esophagus, where fermentation occurs.
The byproducts of fermentation are either absorbed within the rumen or moved on for further digestion and absorption in other parts of the digestive system. Simple indigestion in ruminants is a temporary disruption in gastrointestinal function, usually caused by a sudden change in the quality or quantity of their diet. Consuming large amounts of indigestible feed can impair rumen function for 24 to 48 hours after ingestion, as the accumulation of this feed can physically disrupt ruminal activity. Additionally, the breakdown of proteins in the rumen can produce toxic substances such as amides and amines, including histamine. This condition can lead to a significant drop in milk production due to a marked reduction in the production of volatile fatty acids in a hypotonic reticulorumen. Ruminal impaction is a condition seen in ruminants like cows, sheep,and goats, where the  rumen’s contents become compacted, obstructing their movement through the digestive tract. This condition can arise from various causes, including the ingestion of plastic waste, grazing habits, mineral deficiencies, negative energy balance, urbanization, inadequate water intake, low-fiber or high-grain diets, changes in feed or grazing patterns, and stress. The accumulation of foreign material can block fermentation, interfere with the mixing of rumen contents, and disrupt the rumen’s microflora, leading to indigestion. Acute ruminal acidosis is often caused by the sudden intake of large amounts of carbohydrate-rich feed, particularly grains. Subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) occurs in dairy cattle and is characterized by disrupted ruminal fermentation. It typically results from feeding large amounts of concentrates with insufficient fiber, a practice often used to boost milk production during early lactation. This imbalance in diet can disturb rumen pH and microbial populations, leading to various metabolic and digestive problems. Chronic ruminal acidosis can lead to complications such as rumenitis, which is inflammation of the rumen, and laminitis, a painful condition affecting the hooves. Alkaline indigestion, also known as ruminal alkalosis, occurs when the pH of ruminal fluid rises above 7.5.
 

Introduction
The endocrine system comprises a network of glands responsible for producing and releasing hormones that regulate essential bodily functions, particularly the conversion of calories into energy for cellular and organ function. Endocrinology, a medical branch, focuses on these disorders, which often present complexities involving a combination of hypersecretion and hyposecretion due to intricate feedback mechanisms within
the endocrine system. Glands within this system release distinct hormones into the bloodstream, where they travel to various cells, playing a pivotal role in coordinating and controlling numerous physiological processes. The coordination of normal physiological processes involves the interplay between the endocrine and nervous systems. Neurons with neurosecretory functions in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus
generate peptides and amines. Endocrine disorders refer to a broad range of conditions that affect the endocrine system, a complex network of glands responsible for producing and regulating hormones in the body.
Hormones play a crucial role in controlling various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, electrolyte balance, and reproductive processes. When the endocrine system fails to function properly, it can lead to a wide range of disorders that can significantly impact an individual's quality of life. The endocrine system comprises several glands located throughout the body, each producing specific hormones that regulate various physiological processes. The main endocrine glands include:
1. Pituitary gland: Often referred to as the "master gland," the pituitary gland regulates the function of other endocrine glands and produces hormones that control growth and development.
2. Thyroid gland: Located in the neck, the thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, energy production, and growth.
3. Adrenal glands: Situated on top of the kidneys, the adrenal glands produce hormones that control electrolyte balance, blood pressure, and stress response.