eChapters

Fats are rich sources of energy. Fats provide 2.25 times more available enrgy than carbohydrates. Fats also increase the palatability and reduce the dustiness of feed. Fats and fatty acids decrease the heat increment in the body. Fatty acids are also involved in number of physiological functions of the body. Recently, considerable interest has been shown on studies pertaining to dietary supplementation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in animal feed and their role in animal health and production.

Feeds and feeding of dairy animals are arguably the most important part of the dairy farm management. And it is not only what we feed that is important but how we manage our feeding is equally as critical. What we feed today not only determines the animal’s milk production but also influences their entire lactation cycle that follows. Dairy animal feeding with balanced ration influences health status, reproductive, productive performance and better economic return in organic environment, all of which are critical to a profitable and sustainable dairy business as well as welfare of the dairy farmers. Feed costs currently account for around 45 percent of total milk price on average, with concentrates representing around 35 percent and forages around 10 percent.

To an immunologist, the presence of embryo inside the mother’s uterus is perhaps one of the most surprising things. Pregnancy is a unique event in which a genetically and immunologically foreign foetus usually survives to full term without apparent rejection by the mother’s immune system. Thus, Pregnancy represents the unique physiological phenomenon of the symbiosis of two semi-allogeneic individuals: the mother and her fetus. Such symbiosis requires a sophisticated immunological regulation to avoid rejection-like reactions and to control the invasion of foreign foetal tissue into the maternal deciduas. A very fine tuning of cellular interactions at the interface of both individuals is indispensible for successful implantation and pregnancy.

Over the past decade, more information has been gathered to provide insight into the complex immunological mechanisms that allow the foetus to grow and survive in most cases.

Food adulteration is an unethical and often criminal malpractice. It is very common in countries of the South-East Asia region. It frequently occurs where informal food production and marketing services are predominant and enforcement of food regulation is weak. The prohibited substances are either added or used to partly or wholly substitute healthy ingredients. This creates the impression of freshness in old food artificially. Adulteration in food is usually done for financial gain. The high target is spices due to the demand and also their high price. Sometimes it can happen due to lack of proper hygienic conditions of processing, storage, transportation and marketing. The consumer is either cheated financially or becomes a victim of illness or disease. In case, the consumers take a lot of precautions at the time of purchase of such products it would help them in avoiding the purchase of such adulterated food. The whole spices: Dirt, dust, other seeds; chili powder: brick powder, salt powder or talc, powder. In ghee/butter: vegetable ghee, animal fat, mashed potato, sweet potato, etc. ; ice cream and beverages:saccharin; honey: jaggery, sugar syrup. Food contaminants are not added to the foods. They are present in foods as a result of the production (crop farming, animal husbandry and aquaculture), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination. Usually it includes the presence of harmful chemicals or microorganisms in food, which if consumed can cause several debilitating illnesses. Many times, unknowingly, the contamination may occur during the production, processing, storage and marketing.

Henderson et al., (2010) have studied the different aspects of food regulation. The authors have looked into the perceptions of Australian consumers’ who is and should be responsible for food safety. Forty-seven participants were interviewed as part of a larger study on trust in the food system. Participants associate food governance with government, industry and the individual. While few participants can name the national food regulator, there is a strong belief that the government is responsible for regulating the quality and safety of food. Personal responsibility for food safety practices was also identified. Little evidence is found in the politicisation of food, reflecting a level of trust in the Australian food governance system that may arise from a lack of exposure to major food scares. According to Wood (1990) the marketing of food service program in an Ohio district is directed toward the students and also at the community, school administrators, teachers, and employees. Students are encouraged to follow a healthier way of eating.Jones (1998) studied the role of food safety in the food chain from farm to fork. In response to growing threat of food-borne illnesses the federal government had launched the Food Safety Initiative. A key element is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point’s system (HACCP). Under this it has been designed to make everyone in the food-delivery chain to be responsible for ensuring a safe food supply.

Artificial intelligence offers practical solutions to agricultural problems associated with population growth, food demand, climate change and limited natural resources. This chapter introduces machine learning, deep learning, computer vision and natural language processing, together with enabling technologies such as IoT, remote sensing and cloud computing. It explains their applications in crop monitoring, disease recognition, yield forecasting, irrigation, soil assessment and livestock management. AI can improve decision-making, resource efficiency, automation and precision farming while reducing reliance on manual labour. The chapter also examines adoption barriers, including high costs, limited digital literacy, data-security concerns and weak rural infrastructure, and considers future developments in autonomous and climate-resilient farming.

Systems biology examines living organisms as integrated and interconnected systems rather than as isolated genes, proteins, or metabolic pathways. This chapter introduces the historical development, principles, and major components of systems biology. It explains biological networks, pathway architecture, transcriptome analysis, gene-expression analysis, and interactions among genes, proteins, enzymes, and metabolites. Network-based approaches provide a framework for understanding complex biological processes and predicting cellular responses. The chapter also introduces synthetic biology and synthetic networks and discusses applications of systems biology in medicine, biotechnology, agriculture, and environmental research. Advantages, limitations, computational requirements, and future developments are considered as systems approaches continue to expand biological understanding.

The fungal exometabolome represents the collection of metabolites secreted by fungi into their surrounding extracellular environment. This chapter introduces the concept of the fungal exometabolome and distinguishes it from the intracellular endometabolome. It discusses the composition of extracellular metabolites, factors influencing their production, methods used for exometabolome analysis, and their biological functions. Fungal exometabolites can contribute to communication, nutrient acquisition, competition, host interactions, and environmental adaptation. The chapter also examines industrial and medical applications and the role of fungal exometabolomics in systems biology. Advantages, limitations, analytical challenges, and future perspectives are discussed to demonstrate the value of extracellular metabolite analysis in fungal research.

Eukaryotic, spore – producing, achlorophyllous organisms with absorptive nutrition that generally reproduce both sexually and asexually and whose thallus is usually filamentous, branched somatic structures known as hyphae, typically surrounded with cell wall.

Mycology – Study of fungi

The fungi can be divided into two groups namely

True fungi: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota

Additional phyla: Myxomycota, Dictyosteliomycota, Acrasiomycota, Plasmodiophoromycota, Oomycota, Labyrinthulomycota, Hypochitridomycoya.

AI-driven animal husbandry is advancing through machine learning, computer vision, IoT, big-data analytics, wearable devices and automated equipment. This chapter considers future applications for monitoring animal health, behaviour, nutrition, reproduction and environmental conditions. Predictive systems can support early disease detection, precision feeding, improved breeding and reduced production costs. However, high implementation costs, data privacy, inadequate infrastructure and limited digital knowledge remain significant obstacles, particularly in developing regions. Future research should prioritize affordable, user-friendly and explainable technologies suited to smallholders. Ethical AI, climate adaptation, multimodal data integration, omics analysis and interdisciplinary collaboration among animal scientists, engineers, policymakers and farmers are identified as essential research directions.

In any organism and biomolecules (enzyme, proteins, etc.), most biological activities could be seen only within a narrow environmental conditions. Therefore in order to carry out a successful experiment, from cell culturing to DNA sequencing or assessing an enzyme’s activity, one has to pay utmost attention in calculating correct reaction components.

A solution is defined as a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent. In this case the amount solute is less as compared to the solvent. It is not always necessary that solvent is liquid and solute is solid. There are several examples where solute and solvents are found in other physical states such as gas or solids. For example, carbonated water CO₂ is solute and water is solvent; and smoke is solution of different smoke particles (solute) in air (solvent). The concentration of solution is described as amount of solute in a given volume of solvent. Several ways are there to express the concentration of a solution, such as molarity, normality, molality, and ppm. In this chapter we would discuss the general terms used in making solutions and a brief introduction about buffer solutions.

Dairy animals are the backbone of animal husbandry. India is the largest milk producer and ranks first in the world with a share of 25% of global milk production. Haemoprotozoan diseases pose significant limitations to the health and production of cattle. It leads to significant losses in the livestock industry worldwide. However, most protozoan parasites in the blood are known tocause anaemia by inducing erythro-phagocytosis. In terms of  mortality, reduced milk production and reduced immunity power, hemoprotozoan parasites pose a major threat to the livestock population. Theileria, Babesia, Anaplasma and Trypanosoma are the most important hemoprotozoan diseases of veterinary importance. These diseases affect different livestock species, caused by different species of Trypanosoma, Theileria, Babesia and Anaplasma. Tick-borne hemoprotozoan infections have a significant negative impact on the health and productivity of cattle and result in major losses to the global livestock industry. In tropical and subtropical regions, tick-borne hemoprotozoan infections have a significant impact on animal production. In India, these hemoprotozoan parasites have long posed a serious threat to the survival of exotic and crossbred cattle (Ananda et al., 2009). Haemoprotozoan diseases have deleterious impact on health and production of animals causing death in acute cases, production losses in chronically affected animals which decrease economic share of livestock sector (Bharti et al., 2022)

Protozoa are considered as unicellular eukaryotic organisms and evolved after bacteria and thousands years early to multi-cellular organisms as well as animals. This unicellular eukaryotic organism contains all the organelles or structures like multi-cellular organisms but in single cells. Similar to multicellular, the genetic information of protozoa is also stored in chromosomes. The protozoa differ from bacteria in different manners. The differentiating features of bacteria and protozoa are given in Table 1.
1. General Structures of Protozoa
Protozoa, like other eukaryotic cells, contain a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Beyond these common organelles, protozoa feature a range of unique structures with specific functions that enable them to operate independently. Protozoan cells can be categorized into two primary components: the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

This chapter examines cytokines as essential signalling molecules that regulate immune and inflammatory responses. It introduces interleukins, interferons, chemokines, tumour necrosis factors and colony-stimulating factors. Their sources, target cells and biological actions are considered in relation to immune-cell activation, differentiation, migration and communication. The chapter explains important properties such as pleiotropy, redundancy, synergy and antagonism. It also covers antiviral activity, chemotaxis, inflammation, fever and the regulation of humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Special attention is given to excessive cytokine production, cytokine storms and septic shock. These questions help readers understand how cytokines coordinate protective immunity and contribute to immune-mediated disease.

Development of sophisticated procedures for the isolation, manipulation and expression of genetic materials is a field called genetic engineering. Genetic engineering has applications in both basic and applied research. In basic research, genetic engineering techniques are used to study the mechanisms of gene replication and expression in prokaryotes, eukaryotes and viruses. For applied research, genetic engineering used for development of microbial cultures capable of producing valuable products such as human insulins, growth hormones, interferons, vaccines, enzymes etc. The commercial application of genetic engineering is sometimes referred as Biotechnology. In broad sense, Biotechnology refers the use of living organisms to carry out defined chemical processes for industrial application.

The process of isolation, purification and replication of specific DNA fragment is called molecular cloning or gene cloning. Molecular cloning is the base of most of the genetic engineering procedures. The purpose of molecular cloning is to isolate large quantity of specific genes in pure form. Thus molecular cloning is very important in genetic engineering and can be divided into several steps depends on the purpose. The steps are as follows:

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a rapid way of amplifying (duplicating) specific DNA sequences

Method was devised by Kary Mullis of Cetus Corporation, Emeryville He recieved a $20,000 bonus and later a Nobel Prize

DNA heated to high temperature is not destroyed; separates into single strands, but reforms helix when cooled

PCR Method:

DNA to be amplified is put into solution containing:

Even after public concern the scientists feel that the GMO foods are quite safe. According to them the genetically-engineered crops are very safe to eat as much as the non-GE of the same crop. According to them the environment has improved by reducing the use of pesticides. GMO stands for genetically modified organism. Soy, corn, or other crops are very common as GM crops which are made by genetically engineered DNA. Many have come to the conclusion that GM foods are safe, healthy and sustainable. However, some people are against them. There are many benefits of GM crops like less water or pesticides to be used. Genetically engineered crops fight diseases to save the foods. At the same time the industries/ farmers that grow them are also benefitted. These foods have higher nutritional profiles, both in the US and abroad like corn which is one of the most prominent GMO foods. Soy is found in tofu, vegetarian products, soybean oil, soy flour and many other products. The other major crops taken for genetic modification are Papayas, Canola and Cotton. For dairy products a lot of work is being done on the genetic engineering of animals in a big way. This is going to be the most intractable environmental challenge of the 21^st Century. Presently, around 92% of the U. S. corn (GE), 94% of soybeans and 94% of cotton are genetically engineered.