eChapters

Livestock farms generate large quantities of physiological, environmental, behavioural and production data through sensors, IoT devices and management records. Raw information must be processed before it can support dependable analysis. This chapter explains data cleaning, missing-value treatment, noise reduction, anomaly detection, integration, normalization, transformation and dimensionality reduction. It also discusses feature extraction, categorical encoding, variable transformation and temporal-feature analysis. Machine learning, AutoML, Python, R and other analytical platforms are introduced as tools for preparing livestock datasets. Applications include disease prediction, yield improvement and movement monitoring. The chapter concludes by examining scalability, data quality, privacy and ethical challenges in intelligent livestock analytics.

Precision feeding aims to supply animals with appropriate nutrients according to their changing physiological state, growth, production and environment. Conventional feeding plans are often static and may lead to waste, increased costs and environmental losses. This chapter introduces an AI-enabled framework integrating animal data, feed composition, growth characteristics and external factors. Regression, ensemble learning and other machine-learning models predict feed intake and weight gain, while linear programming and metaheuristic optimization generate efficient allocation plans. A decision-support system provides recommendations in real time. The approach can improve feed conversion, nutrient utilization, profitability and sustainability while reducing overfeeding, resource wastage and the environmental impact of livestock production.

A. Construction, Use and Care of Light Microscope
Introduction
Microorganism are invisible to naked eyes, hence their detailed study requires a microscope. A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting enlarged or magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. Usually it gives magnification up to 20 times the size of the object. A compound microscope consists of two separate lens system – the objective and the eye piece. It gives much greater magnification (100-1500 times) than a simple microscope and is, therefore useful for viewing and examining very minute objects like protozoa, bacteria, yeast, mold and algae which cannot be seen with naked eyes.
The objective of this exercise is to familiarize the students with construction and the use of compound light microscope.
1. Construction of Microscope
A microscope contrite various parts in which principle parts are described below:
i) Frame work: All microscopes have a basic frame structure which includes the arm and base. All other parts are attached to this framework and the base support the microscope.
ii) Stage: It is a horizontal platform that supports the microscopic slide. It has a mechanical stage, which is used for holding and moving the slide around on the stage.

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.

Microbiology is a branch of science dealing with the study of organisms which are too small to be seen clearly by unaided eye. Roughly the organisms with a diameter of 0.1mm or less, which can not be seen by the human eyes unaided, come under the domain of microorganisms.

Thus, the laboratory work dealing with the microorganisms needs special care to avoid infection and infusion for maintaining good health. In fact all microorganisms should be treated as potential pathogens. Thus, for working with microorganisms aseptic techniques must be followed by students as well as by the laboratory assistants and teachers.

Cytokines are the short lived chemical messenger molecules, released by a group of cells which can modulate the functions of the same cell(by which they are produced) or other cells.

Haemoprotozoan parasites are responsible for causing severe infections in humans as well as animals across the world. The important hemoprotozoan diseases of livestock are trypanosomosis, theileriosis, babesiosis, and
anaplasmosis, which are caused by several species of Trypanosoma, Theileria, Babesia, and Anaplasma, respectively, in several species of livestock. These diseases caused huge impact on health and productivity of livestock as well as human beings and causes great economic losses to the livestock production n terms of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In India, the annual economic loss has been esteemed in the livestock due to theileriosis, babesiosis and trypanosomosis of Rs 8426 crore, Rs 4000 crore and Rs 4474 core, respectively. The major clinical signs of the haemoprotozoan disease varies from fever, anorexia, anaemia, abortion, and even death in the acute form of infections. The symptomatological treatment is a quite common practice in the field condition to treat the animals suspected with haemoprotozon infection leading to the development of resistance in animals to currently available drugs against haemoprotozoans. The accurate and prompt diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infection is a key to control these diseases. Routine diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infection has been rely on clinical findings and microscopical demonstration of the infective parasitic stages in the blood or tissue fluid smear. Conventional diagnostic techniques such as Microscopical examination techniques and Immunological assay provide the definite clues about parasitic infections in general, but these tests have some limitations.

In the study of immunology, several techniques are used. These techniques are called immunotechniques. These techniques are used not only in immunology but are the methods for research and diagnostic purpose in many fields such as microbiology, biochemistry, endocrinology, hematology and in pathological laboratories.

General Terminologies in Livestock Production

Meat is considered as well balanced diet because it is good source of macro and micro nutrients.

Macronutrients-required in large quantity in body i.e proteins, fat and carbohydrates.

Micronutrients-required in lesser quantity by human body i.e vitamins, minerals and fibers.

Organ meat like liver is a good source of glycogen, viatm-A, B1 and nicotinic acid.

Fresh meat is unprocessed.

Raw meat is a fresh meat undergone chilling and freezing.

Refrigeration and rapid cooling can delay the onset of rigor mortis

Veterinary surgery: The surgery which is practiced on animals. It deals with the treatment of deformities, injuries, or disease conditions by manipulation with the hands. The term “Surgery” is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia (Cheir – Hand, Ergon – work).

The papyri of Egypt contained information on treatment of fractures and superficial wounds.

In Vedic era, Salihotra and Palakapya were the greatest ancient Indian veterinarians. Salihotra treated horses and Palakaya elephants.

“Susruta Samhita’ is the earliest known work dealing with the medical science especially surgery.

Hobday wrote first comprehensive text on surgical diseases of the dog and cat.

The theory and practice of asepsis was introduced by Joseph Lister.

W.S. Halsted introduced the principles of surgery and use of rubber gloves.

A variety of glassware like burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, flasks, separating funnel etc. are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. All of these need to be used and handled correctly, otherwise the chances of experimental error and damage to the glassware increase significantly. Being made of glass, they need special care while washing and using in experiments because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in breakage of the apparatus. With this precautionary note, let us discuss about some of the specific glassware used in the laboratories.

Burette

Burette is a long graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end for delivering a known/desired volume of a liquid, especially in titration experiments. It contains a stopcock at the lower end and a tapered capillary tube as the stopcock’s outlet. The flow rate of liquid from the tub stopcock’s outlet can be controlled with the help of stopcock valve. Burette is used for measuring the volume of a solution/chemical added in a quantitative (titrimetric) estimation experiment.

Procedure of using a Burette

The burette reading must be noted before and after delivering the chemical/ solution from the burette. The difference in these two readings is the volume of the chemical/solution released out of the burette. The solution should be released slowly/drop-by-drop to avoid any experimental error/mistake. If the solution/chemical is allowed to pour out too fast, the wall of the burette will not drain properly and some liquid may remain sticking to the surface of the walls. Moreover, excessive amount of chemical may be released/dropped during the experiment, particularly during the titration experiment wherein we need to know the exact amount of acid/base needed to get neutralization point. Thus, any minor mistake may lead to get a faulty reading. The measuring capacity of a burette usually used in a laboratory is 50 mL.

Before proceeding to find out the nature of the egg content of the faecal sample, one should know what class of animal the faecal sample belongs to. It is easy to identify a faecal sample of herbivore from that of an omnivore or a carnivore. The dung of cattle, sheep and horse will contain lot of vegetable fibers. The colour of the dung under normal conditions will be dark greenish yellow with a peculiar aromatic smell. But the faeces of a dog or cat will be soft and pasty devoid of fibers and dark yellow in colour with an unpleasant smell. Several procedures commonly used to examine faeces for parasites are described in this section. Before attempting to apply these procedures, a few points should be considered:

Collection of blood Blood sample should be collected in a capped clean and dry vial containing an appropriate amount of anticoagulant. The commonly used anticoagulants are ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) @ 1-2 mg/ml and heparin @ 5 I.U./ ml of blood. Sites for blood collection Before collection of blood clean the site of collection by applying some antiseptic solution. If the area is hairy shaving of the site under aseptic condition should be done. Tip of the ear should be preferred for prompt or early diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infections. The vein can then be punctured with hypodermic needle and the collected blood is transferred to a clean glass vial. For collection of blood various preferred sites in different animals are as under

Introduction
The safety of meat and its derivatives is a paramount concern in the dynamic realm of food trade. Consumers demand food products that are not only affordable and possess an extended shelf life but are also of high safety standards. Consequently, meat inspections require strict adherence to good manufacturing practices and safety labelling that aligns with regulatory standards. Food-borne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp., are responsible for numerous illnesses, thereby exerting a significant impact on public health and the economy. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), food contaminated with pathogens, chemicals, and allergens results in 600 million cases of food-borne illnesses and approximately 400,000 deaths globally each year. Furthermore, 56 million individuals die annually, with about 7.7% of the global population affected by foodborne diseases. Meat and meat products are essential sources of nutrients for humans, providing high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, and minerals. However, due to their high-water activity and nutrient content, they also create a conducive environment for spoilage microorganisms and food-borne pathogens. Until a few decades ago, the meat industry was largely dominated by the unorganized sector, with limited access to knowledge that could enhance productivity. However, in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, meat entrepreneurs have succeeded in increasing productivity, although they have faced challenges in ensuring product quality that aligns with the legislative standards of numerous developed and developing countries. The use of antibiotics as antimicrobial growth promoters in animal food production has been a contentious issue, as their unauthorized application has inadvertently contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria within the food chain. Recently, the United States Trade Representative’s office estimated that international trade has expanded significantly since the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. The establishment of the WTO in 1995 further facilitated trade in animal-origin foods and live animals between nations. However, the emergence and re-emergence of diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria have become a significant concern in this new pattern of food trade. Some of these pathogens are so virulent that they were not previously reported. According to a 1998 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the annual cost of foodborne illnesses in the United States is nearly 10 billion US dollars. The bacterial pathogens most commonly associated with illnesses from beef products include Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. Interest in Escherichia coli O157: H7 increased following a highly publicized food poisoning outbreak linked to undercooked beef patties in the United States in 1993, although it was largely confined to North America until the mid-1990s. Similarly, multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT-104 has spread widely since it was first identified in the United Kingdom. In India, the incidence of Salmonella in red meat was recorded at up to 9%. These potentially harmful bacterial pathogens can reside on the hides or in the intestinal tracts of foodproducing animals or may originate indirectly through cross-contamination or the processing environment. Other emerging foodborne diseases include Listeriosis, which has spread throughout France and Canada, where meat and meat products have been implicated as sources of Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, Staphylococcal food poisoning or food intoxication syndrome, first reported in 1894, has become a global issue in the meat industry.

Everyone on this earth wishes to have a healthy life free from all ailments, stress and strain. But it is a common observation that some of us are more susceptible to diseases and fall victim of many infections while others have the capacity to resist many such infections. They are not so much susceptible to diseases. Is there anything which distinguishes them from others? An organism is made up of organs and organs systems. Like many other organ systems, in the body there is a system which is concerned with the protection of the body from infections.

Like any other organ system in the body, immune system comprises of various organs and cells. The major component of the immune system is the lymphocytes which constitute lymphoid system. The lymphoid organs are classified into two categories: primary and secondary lymphoid organs.

Primary lymphoid organs: These are the organs where B and T lymphocytes undergo maturation. Bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs. These are the organs where lymphocytes differentiate, proliferate, get selected and mature into functional cells.

Metabolites are small molecules generated or utilized during cellular metabolism and include amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, organic acids, nucleotides, vitamins, hormones, and secondary metabolites. This chapter introduces the major classes of metabolites and their biological significance. It explains metabolic architecture as the organization and interaction of interconnected biochemical pathways that regulate cellular energy production, biosynthesis, degradation, signaling, and adaptation. The chapter describes primary and secondary metabolites and examines central metabolic pathways and their interrelationships. Understanding metabolic architecture provides the foundation for interpreting metabolomic profiles and identifying changes associated with physiological conditions, environmental stresses, disease processes, and alterations in cellular metabolic regulation.

In 1882, Robert Koch first isolated the bacterium, stained with alkaline methylene blue and vesuvin as counter stain and showed its etiologic relationship with tuberculosis. Ehrlich first developed acid-fast stain in 1882 and used for better staining of the bacteria which was adopted by Robert Koch. The acid-fast staining technique was modified later by Franz Ziehl and Friedrich Neelsen, accordingly, it is known as Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) staining. In 1890, Koch prepared a glycerine broth extract of the tubercle bacillus, known as ‘tuberculin’. He tried to prepare it as a curative agent; but it was used later in diagnosis. In 1895, Johne and Frothingham described the first case of paratuberculosis in cattle which became known as ‘Johne’s disease’. The causative bacterium was later isolated by Twort and Ingram in 1910.

In India, bovine tuberculosis is reported from several states since 1959 (Dhanda and Lall, 1959). The bovine paratuberculosis in India was first reported by Nanda and Singh (1940) from Haryana.