eChapters

Centesis is a surgical puncture or perforation into body cavity or structure usually done to aspirate fluid, air or tissue. The medical purpose of puncturing body cavities is not only to obtain fluid sample for diagnostic purpose but also to remove excessive fluid for therapeutic purpose for alleviating the respiratory distress owing to excessive fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, pleural cavity or pericardial sac. This procedure is usually done to get fluid from abdominal cavity, thoracic cavity, pericardial sac or joint capsule and is aptly known as abdominocentesis, thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis or arthrocentesis respectively.

Cerebrospinal fluid examination is an important diagnostic procedure for evaluating diseases affecting the central nervous system. This chapter describes techniques for CSF collection, including appropriate sampling approaches and precautions. Collected fluid may be submitted for physical, chemical, cytological and microbial examination. Important parameters include colour, turbidity, protein concentration, glucose, chloride, enzymes and nucleated cell counts. Cytological evaluation and culture may assist in identifying inflammatory or infectious processes. Proper sample handling and timely processing are emphasized because cellular and biochemical characteristics can change after collection. CSF findings should be interpreted alongside neurological examination and other diagnostic investigations.

Large Animals The collection and evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in farm animals with signs of diseases of nervous system provides very valuable diagnostic and prognostic information. Routinely, CSF is evaluated for total protein level, erythrocyte and leukocyte counts, and a differential cell count. Additional tests are available for specific neurologic conditions. CSF is primarily produced by the choroid plexuses in the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles through plasma ultra filtration and active transport across the blood-brain barrier. Smaller amounts of CSF are generated by the ependymal lining, pia arachnoid, meningeal blood vessels, and spinal cord’s central canal. The turnover rate is about 1% per minute, meaning systemic electrolyte or acid-base changes take several minutes to affect CSF

Animal body contains several fluids other than blood and lymph which have specialized functions for specific organs. Two of these fluids are cerebrospinal fluid and synovial fluid. The cerebrospinal fluids protects and supports brain and spinal cord function. Synovial fluid protects the functioning of the movement of the body by bone-muscular joints.

The tumor arising out of ceruminous gland might develop subsequent to chronic otitis externa in dogs. It may be a benign or malignant tumor of ceruminous gland epithelium. It is more common in the external ear canal of dogs.

Chemical immobilization of elephants needs an understanding of itís special features as a priority. Lungs are adhered to the chest wall by fibrous tissue and there is no pleural space. This fact must be taken into consideration when the elephant is cast or put into positions that may inhibit respiration.The trunk of the elephant is a vital organ. An injured or paralyzed trunk is a serious problem; if it cannot be corrected, the elephant will starve.

Chemical restraint is a form of animal restraint technique in which a drug or a chemical is used to restrict the movement (walking, running, aggression) of an animal or sometimes just to sedate or to calm down the animal. Chemical restraint is a safe and effective capture method when applied correctly and with due precaution.

Salinity is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved solids, which is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt). Chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, and bromide are anions (- charged). Cations that are positively charged are sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and strontium. The main solids are sodium and chloride.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Chikungunya has been emerged as an important public health problem in the Indian Ocean Islands and India recently. Epidemiological, geographical and demographic data suggested that 1.38 million people were affected by the disease in India in 2006. The actual incidence of the disease may have been higher but underreporting did not reveal the actual picture. A large proportion of those who became ill consulted private health care professional or sought alternative medical care such as Ayurveda or homeopathy not included in the data collected by Govt. officials.

During the epidemic, rural hospitals, private and public clinics flooded with victims of Chikungunya. The virus did not kill its victims but inflicted considerable pain and misery besides local, regional and national financial burden towards health care. Only National Institute of Virology (NIV) and National Institute of Communicable Disease (NICD) provided accurate diagnosis of the disease. The Chikungunya assumed epidemic proportions because viral agent mutated, the vectors discovered the new ways to spread and the host lacked immunity to fight the disease. Modern transport systems - cars, buses, trains and aircraft particularly the movement of humans played a key role in spreading the disease that helped to maintain man-mosquito man cycle.

Etiology: First isolated in Tanzania in 1953, Chikungunya is under genus Alphavirus and family Togaviridae. It contains a single stranded positive sense RNA with a length of 12 Kb coding 4 non-structural (nspl - nsp 4) and 3 structural proteins (E1-E3). Among the structural protein, El protein correlates with serological response in human hosts and also modulates penetration of the virus in the mosquito species. Genetic analyses and historical accounts suggest that the Chikungunya virus originated in tropical Africa and subsequently evolved into 3 distinct genotypes - the East African, the West African and the Asian genotypes. The Asian genotypes have a high degree of nucleic acid sequence homology among themselves but the African strains exhibit wider sequence diversity and have been shown to undergo genetic micro-evolutions even during the course of an epidemic. Prior to the 2006 epidemic in India, the 3 genotypes were restricted to the geographical areas only. Previous outbreaks in India (1963 and 1973) were caused by the Asian genotypes, but the 2005 epidemic in the Indian Ocean Islands and the 2006 epidemic in India have been attributed to the East African genotype which arrived in India 5 years ago.

Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips palmi: Thripidae

The adults of this insect are small brownish black with fringed wings. The nymphs are slender and yellowish straw coloured, later acquiring more brownish hue. They lacerate the tissues and feed on the exuding sap. Leaves become crinkled, curled upward and shed. The attack can be confused with chilli mosaic symptom.  In capsicum and chilli, they also feed beneath calyx of flowers and fruits causing flower/fruit drop and reduction in yield and market value of capsicum. Buds become brittle and drop down. Plants get stunted and bronzed. The fruits if at all formed are crinkled and small.

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : Chrysomelidae

Adults cut tender shoots and feed on leaves resulting in holes and loss of leaf. Grubs feed on roots and underground stems leading to yellowing,wilting and drying of attacked plants.

Leaf-and shoot folders: Hymenia recurvalis : Pyraustidae

Pycnarmon cribrata;Phostria piasusalis

Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria with an unusual developmental cycle during which unique infectious forms are produced. They replicate within cytoplasmic vacuoles in host cells. On account of their apparent inability to generate ATP, with resultant dependence on host cell metabolism, they have been termed ‘energy parasites’.
The family Chlamydiaceae belongs to the order Chlamydiales. Currently two genera, Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, and nine species are described. Formerly a single genus and four species, Chlamydia trachomatis, C. psittaci, C. pneumoniae and C. pecorum, were recognised. This classification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as host preference, inclusion morphology, iodine staining for the presence of glycogen, and sulphonamide susceptibility. However, recent nucleic acid sequencing studies of the 16s and 23s rRNA genes confirm two distinct lineages.
In the developmental cycle of chlamydiae, infectious and reproductive forms are morphologically distinct. Infectious extracellular forms, called elementary bodies (EBs) are small (200 to 300 nm), metabolically inert and osmotically stable. Each EB is surrounded by a conventional bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, a periplasmic space and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharide.
The periplasmic space does not contain a detectable peptidoglycan layer and the EB relies on disulphide cross-linked envelope proteins for osmotic stability. Elementary bodies enter host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Acidification of the endosome and fusion with lysosomes are prevented by mechanisms which are not fully understood. A process of structural reorganization within the pathogen, of several hours duration, results in the conversion of an EB into a reticulate body (RB). The RB, about 1 μm in diameter, is metabolically active, osmotically fragile and replicates by binary fission within the endosome. The endosome and its contents, when stained, is called an inclusion. When a number of inclusions containing RBs of C.trachomatis are formed in an infected cell, fusion of these structures may
occur.

Chlamydial organisms are spherical 0.2-1.5 um in diameter. They can be stained and seen in the light microscope, but they grow only in living cells. Chlamydial organisms infect mammals and birds causing various disease syndromes. Chlamydiacae family has one genus; Chlamydia. C. trachomatis, C. suis and C. muridarum. They cause disease in man, swine and mice. C. psittaci, C. pneumonia, C. felis, C. Caviae, and C. abortus. cause disease in man, birds and animals. Species can be differentiated on their growth characters inside the host cell.

Key Points

• Dogs can be fed a wide variety of chocolate and cocoa-based goods, particularly during holiday seasons, such as candy, cakes, cookies, brownies, and chocolate chips.

• Dogs that eat chocolate usually become very sick, but they also seldom die from it.

Introduction

Caffeine and theobromine are found in chocolate. Dogs' metabolisms of caffeine and theobromine differ from humans'. Because they contain more theobromine and caffeine, darker, bitter chocolates are considered to be more dangerous.

When a dog consumes too much chocolate goods, it can lead to major health problems like seizures, heart failure, and muscular tremors. In extreme situations, the dog may even pass away from cardiac or respiratory failure. Due to the fat and sugar content, it induces vomiting and diarrhoea even in non-toxic doses. Numerous substances found in chocolate are hazardous to animals. Although chocolate poisoning can affect a wide variety of animal species, including dogs, cats, horses, and rodents, it most frequently affects dogs. Theobromine and caffeine are the main harmful ingredients in chocolate. The amount of caffeine and theobromine in chocolate varies with kind. Dogs' metabolism of theobromine and caffeine differs from that of humans. Dogs are more sensitive because of this. Dogs who consume chocolate may become seriously unwell, even though it rarely results in death. When a dog eats too many chocolate-containing foods, such as cakes, cookies, brownies, candies, and chocolate chips, it might become poisoned.

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : ChrysomelidaeAphids : Macrosiphoniella  sanborni; Myzus  persicae; Brachicaudus  helichrysi; Aphis  gossypi; Aphis fabae; Aulocorthum circumflexum: Aphid

Chrysanthemum   is infested by different species of aphids. Aphids are small, soft bodied insects and their colour varies with species. Both nymphs and adults cluster on the growing stem tips and under surface of leaves. As a result, the plants show loss of vigor, distortion of leaves and flowers, yellowing, premature leaf fall and stunted growth. The damaged plants bear only undersized buds and they remain unopened. Peak damage period is November-December. Secretion of honeydew by the aphids favor development of sooty mould which hinders photosynthesis and the plants become stunted. They are also vectors of virus diseases.

Cinnamon butterfly: Chilasa clytia clytia : Papilionidae

Larvae defoliate plants. The larvae are pests on many crop plants and weeds and are common in the plains. The larvae are jet black at hatching. They develop a series of broad white patches. The adult is a common butterfly rich velvety brown, and spotted with white dots. The hind wings have arrow shaped streaks and crescent shaped spots.

Citrus butterfly: Papilio demoleus, P. polytes : Papilionidae

The pest is distributed all over the world and has a host range that includes citrus and other rutaceae plants like Aegle marmelos. Adult has the head and thorax black with a creamy-yellow coloration on the underside of the abdomen. Wings are dull black, orna-mented with yellow markings and a distinct red patch on the hind wing. The underside is orange and yellow coloured and can be seen when it flirts for honey collection or just before egg laying. The Antenna is black and clubbed.