eChapters

Abstract

Aquaculture is facing the serious effects of climate change in the form of scarcity of water and shift in dissolved oxygen level leading to outbreak of diseases. In a study conducted in Farm facilities of ICAR, Tripura it was seen that rise in temperature do have significant effect on hematological and biochemical parameters of fish which are basic index of good health of any organism. Many different diseases occur in the farmers’ pond and which can be controlled. So some basic diseases and their controlling strategies have been pointed out that can lead to better management of fish diseases in pond condition.

Introduction

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate change refers to the long-term changes (typically decades or longer) in the average state of the climate with statistically significant variations.

The climate change, defined as the long-term imbalance of customary weather conditions such as temperature, radiation, wind and rainfall characteristics of a particular region, is likely to be one of the main challenges for mankind during the present century.

A general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties (principally the man and spread) of the climate system when considered over long periods.

Climate Resilience

Climate resilience can be generally defined as the capacity for a socioecological system to: Absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change. Adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts.

Introduction

Birds lack sweat glands; hence non-evaporative cooling mechanism (radiation, conduction and convection) is the major route of heat dissipation within thermoneutral range. Beyond this TNZ, majority of heat loss occurs as insensible heat loss i.e., Panting. Panting is one of the visible responses in poultry during exposure to heat stress associated with considerable energy expenditure. This specialized form of respiration dissipates heat by evaporative cooling at the surface of the mouth and respiratory passage. Panting increase, the loss of CO2 from the lungs, this leads to a reduction in the partial pressure of CO2 and also reduces bicarbonate levels in blood plasma. In turn, the lowered concentration of hydrogen ions leads to rise in plasma pH, a condition generally referred to alkalosis (Daghir, 2009). Birds also respond by reducing their feed intake and thus metabolizable energy (ME) intake to reduce thermo genesis as an adoptive mechanism. If panting fails to prevent their body temperatures from rising, the birds become listless, comatose and soon die due to respiratory, circulatory or electrolyte imbalances (Saif et al., 2003).

Abstract

The north eastern region of India, consisting of the eight states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, has an area of 255 090 km2 with a vigorous monsoon dominated climatic and a dynamic hydro-geomorphic regimes. Endowed with a sub-tropical type of monsoonal climate, the region shows remarkable variability of weather and climate on a regional scale. It possesses about 30% of the total water resources potential and about 41 % of the total hydropower potential of India. The per capita and per hectare availability of water in this region is the highest in the country. The problems of environment degradation in the northeastern areas of India are, primarily impacted by demographic pressure, urbanization, natural disasters, soil erosion and land degradation. The region is visited by the southwest monsoons which make it one of the wettest areas in South Asia as well as highly frequented by the water induced disasters. The rapid melting of glaciers is initially expected to first contribute to excessive water flow and flooding in the region. Eventually with the full loss of glaciers, the shortage, when it comes, will likely arrive much more abruptly in time; with water systems going from plenty to want in perhaps a few decades or less.

Introduction

Poultry production is one of the fastest growing sectors of livestock industry in developing countries. Environmental variation is one of the major factors that affect sustainability of poultry production systems in tropical climate (Sinha et al., 2017a). Adverse climatic stress declines the production performance of chicken which causes high economic loss to the enterprises as well as the farmers. Heat stress has an adverse effect on egg production, egg weight and shell quality of laying hen (Whitehead et al., 1998). Climatic variables like temperature, humidity, radiation and wind speed that directly affect the mechanism of thermoregulation and rates of heat exchange by all animals (NRC, 2001). Heat stress is a major factor that decreases productivity and reproductive efficiency of livestock due to lower feed intake and negative energy balance (De Rensis and Scaramuzzi, 2003). Moreover, it badly affect the production due to decline feed digestibility such as proteins, fats, starch (Bonnet et al., 1997). In addition, the acute heat stress drastically decreases the reproductive performance of hens due to alterations in acid-base balance and ion exchange mechanism (Mahmoud et al., 1996). Climate change in?uences the emergence of disease and their transmission due to increases vectors, pathogens. All the above effects impact a huge economic loss to the farmers as well as the country.

Introduction
Reproduction involves the intricate interplay of physiological processes to ensure the successful growth and development of the embryo and fetus. Three key processes— implantation, placentation, and the establishment of fetal circulation—are fundamental to a viable pregnancy. These stages ensure the fetus receives adequate nutrients, oxygen, and support for development. Below is a detailed elaboration of each process.
1. Implantation
Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst (a hollow structure formed in the early development of mammals) embeds itself into the uterine wall. It is the first critical step in establishing a pregnancy.
Phases of Implantation
1. Apposition: The blastocyst loosely attaches to the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus).
2. Adhesion: The trophoblast cells (outer layer of the blastocyst) firmly attach to the uterine lining.
3. Invasion: The trophoblast differentiates into two layers: Cytotrophoblast: The inner cellular layer that serves as the proliferative zone. Syncytiotrophoblast: The outer multinucleated layer that invades the endometrium, facilitating deeper embedding.
Significance
Implantation typically occurs 6–10 days after fertilization.
It ensures the establishment of an early connection between the embryo and maternal blood supply.
Successful implantation depends on hormonal regulation, especially the roles of estrogen and progesterone, which prepare the endometrium to be receptive.

Class- Arachnida
 •Class Arachnida includes scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites.
 •Antennae, wings and compound eyes are absent.
 •Body divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
 •Mouth is small and adapted for suck blood or tissue fluids of host.
 •Most of the members have poison glands or claws for paralyzing the host before sucking.
 •The first and second pair of appendages is known as chelicerae and pedipalps, respectively.
 •The first six segments of body are termed as prosoma and rest segments as opisthosoma.

Introduction
Physiological disorders or dysfunctions in domestic animals are prevalent and can significantly impact the health and well-being of these animals. Understanding the fundamentals of these disorders is essential for veterinarians, animal scientists, and anyone involved in the care and management of animals. This chapter covers a diverse range of physiological disorders, including cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, endocrine, musculoskeletal, neurological, dermatological, reproductive, and ocular disorders. These conditions can manifest differently across species and breeds. This MCQ chapter serves as an introduction to the basics of physiological disorders in domestic animals and aims to test your knowledge on this important subject.

Mostly goats are reared in extensive small holder systems in developing countries. Goat breeding programmes in these environments have been limited, amongst other factors, by the non availability of pedigree and performance records for traits of economic importance. Cross-breeding and selection play an important role in increasing production in the goats.The development of breeding strategy for the improvement of goats should be based on genetic parameter estimates of economically important traits. Biological, cultural, statistical, socio-economical and management aspects should also be an important component of the selection process.

Goats were domesticated for the triple purpose of milk, meat and hair. Although the development of milk and hair producing animals did not go together, the development of meat and hair together worked very well and there are several breeds like Angora which in addition to providing fiber, are excellent meat animals too. The development of meat breeds was favored by natural selection. The characters which aided to this aspect were high fertility rates and the relatively more active life which goats were forced to lead in order to get enough of nutrition in poor agricultural lands, deserts etc. where these animals were domesticated. These animals were exposed to the vagaries of the environment resulting in decline in production traits such as milk, meat etc. But meat production was not. Most of the breeds of Asia and Africa are thus predominant meat breeds which have been improved little by conscious effort of breeders. Some of them still have slow growth rate and feed conversion efficiency. The preference for goat meat had eroded the dairy potential of Indian goats, as the fastest growing males are slaughtered for meat purposes and only poor animals are retained for breeding purposes. Careful selection and utilisation of breeding males can alleviate this problem to a large measure and animals for both milk and meat production can be developed.There are several goat breeds that have good potential for meat production. Generally, there have been limited planned selection and breeding programs carried out by animal scientists to improve rate of growth and carcass composition of goats. As a result, many goat breeds deposit less intramuscular and subcutaneous fat. In the past, domesticated meat animals were selected for heavier mature weight and greater rate of gain. Selection for such parameters usually resulted in undesirable characteristics because some of the animals had not only gained weight faster and were heavier at maturity, but also had more subcutaneous and intramascular fat. Since consumers currently prefer leaner red meat, the livestock industry is making significant changes to satisfy these demands. Goat meat has unique attributes which will be beneficial to the present day consumer. Goat meat has 10% more lean carcass than cattle. At the same time the fat content is lower by 47% than beef. These qualities of the goat meat need to be emphasized so that the general public can become aware of this useful product.

IBH is an adenovirus infection of young chickens characterized by sudden onset and sharply increased mortality, short course, anaemia, and hepatitis often accompanied by intranuclear inclusion bodies. It is described in Canada, USA and many other countries.

Duck (Anas platyrhynchos) is one type of indigenous poultry species, reared traditionally by the poor farmers for their livelihood. Maximum numbers of duck flocks concentrate in the paddy (Oryza sativa) growing and watershed areas of the state like Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and Tripura. Ducks rise on the free-range system with readily available fallen grains in paddy fields, insects, snails, earthworms, small fishes, and other aquatic materials. 

Introduction
Infection prevention and control refers to prevention and control of infections and their transmission in healthcare settings. Healthcare Associated Infections (HAI) are one of the most common adverse events in delivery of care and a major public health problem with an impact on morbidity, mortality and quality of life. Up to 7% of patients in developed and 10% in developing countries acquire at least one HAI. These infections also present a significant economic burden for the health system.1It is evident that HAIs result in prolonged hospital stays, long-term disability, increased resistance of microorganisms to antimicrobials, additional cost on health systems, high cost for patients and their family, and preventable deaths.
The core components of IPC2
• IPC programme at the national and health facility level
• National and facility level evidence-based guidelines on IPC
• Education and training
• HAI surveillance
• Multimodal strategies
• Monitoring and audit of IPC practices and feedback
• Workload, staffing and bed occupancy
• Built environment, materials and equipment for IPC
HAI Burden
HAI are one of the most common adverse events in healthcare delivery and a major public health problem with an impact on morbidity, mortality and

This ‘virus’ is widespread in commercial flocks worldwide, but its taxonomic position is not determined. The disease is characterized by aplastic anaemia and generalized lymphoid atrophy with a concomitant immunosuppression. Consequently, infectious anaemia is frequently complicated by viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.

Occurrence

Chickens up to 3 weeks of age are most susceptible.

Synonyms :  Viral bovi. rhinotracheitis, Red nose, I.B.R, Infectious pustular vulvovaginits (IPV), Coital exanthema, Infectious pustular balanoposthitis (IPB), Bovine herpes virus 1(BHV 1).

It is a highly infectious disease of bovine characterized by high fever, rhinotracheitis, conjunctivitis, with a short course and high recovery rate. Encephalitis, the systemic form of the disease in new born calves, infectious pustular vulvovaginits/balanoposthitis are other syndromes caused by the same virus. Genetic isolates of various clinical isolates has found subtypes of BHV 1; a respiratory subtype BHV 1.1, a genital subtype BHV1.2 and an encephalatic subtype BHV 1.3, which is now termed as BHV 5.

IB is an acute, highly contagious, viral disease of chickens characterized by respiratory signs (gasping, sneezing, coughing, and nasal discharge), the severe renal disease associated with neurotropic strains, and a marked decrease in egg production. It is a serious cause of sub-optimal egg production and poor egg quality. This disease is worldwide in ditribution.

Hosts

Chickens only. Recently IBV has been detected in species other than chickens. The disease may be produced only in chickens, IBV may multiply in other species of birds and be a source of infection.

Etiology

IB is caused by the avian coronavirus; numerous strains of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) exist because of high genetic diversity and cross protection between strains is not reliable.

IBD is an acute, contagious, viral disease of young chickens characterized by diarrhoea, vent pecking, trembling, incoordination, inflammation followed by atrophy of the bursa of Fabricius (BF) and by a variable degree of immunosuppression.

In the USA the disease was reported in Gumboro, Delaware in 1962, hence the name. The occurrence is worldwide.

Etiology

Avibacter paragallinarum Serotype A, B and C. Based on hemagglutinin serotyping, three serotypes (A, B and C) have been recognized.

Epizootiology

The chicken is the natural host although the disease has occasionally been diagnosed in pheasants. All ages of chicken are susceptible but birds up to 10 weeks are less vulnerable.

1. The chronic or healthy carrier birds serve as source of infection. Infection within farm occurs by contact with drinking water or feed contaminated by nasal discharge from sick/carrier chickens. To farms situated at a distance, infection is through air borne transmission.
2. The disease occurs more in cold and wet conditions. The more severe disease occurs when other respiratory diseases are prevalent at the farm.

ILT is an acute viral disease of chickens, pheasants and peafowl characterized by marked dyspnea, coughing, gasping and expectoration of bloody exudate. The disease is worldwide.

Hosts

Chickens particularly susceptible; reported to occur in pheasants and peafowl.

Age Range

All ages susceptible but is most often found in adult (mature or nearly mature) commercial chicken layers.

Inflammation

Inflammation is a complex process of vascular and cellular alterations that occur in body in response to injury. The term inflammation has been derived from the Latin word inflammare, means to set on fire. Inflammation is considered as an important event in body that activates the existing defense mechanisms in circulating blood to dilute, naturalize or kill the irritant/ causative agent. Thus, it is said that immunity is the resistance of body, while inflammation is the activation of that immunity. It is beneficial to body except when chronic or immune origin. Inflammation starts with sublethal injury and ends with healing.

Etiology

• Any irritant/ injury.

• Bacteria, virus, parasite, fungus etc.

• Trauma. • Physical or chemical injury.