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Lameness in dairy animals is a serious health problem all over the world causing substantial economic losses to dairy industry owing to reduced milk production, reduced reproductive performance, cost of treatment including medicines, increased risk of culling, death, and the development of other diseases. Lameness can be defined as a state of being unable to walk properly because of pain in the limbs or foot. The incidence of lameness in the dairy herd is variable (1 to 50%) depending on the farm. In USA its incidence varies from 13 to 55% (Hoffman et al., 2014; Cook et al., 2016). Lameness may be due to diseases of limb and/or hoof of infectious and/or noninfectious origin. Lameness usually affects hind limbs because of greater load of the body on hind limbs. A lame animal adjusts gait and posture depending on the origin of the pain (foot or upper limb). Clinical signs of lameness include changes in locomotion (e.g. decreased speed, decreased stride, length and tracking, increased abduction,

Grasshoppers: Mecopoda elongata :Tettigonidae; Oxya velox: Acrididae

These pests occur both in nurseries and plantations. Both adults and nymphs feed on leaves by scrapping and eating outer tissues and margins. The emerging leaves are nibbled and the spot holes appear when the leaf unfurls. In severe conditions the entire leaf is eaten leaving behind only the midrib.

Goats are used primarily for milk and meat production, but their skin is also a valuable by- product. Goats are an important source of hides and skin . The term hide is used to denote the outer covering of large animals such as cows, buffaloes, horses ,sheep, camel etc. The term “Skin” is applied to that of smaller animals such as sheep, goats , calves etc. Raw hides and skins are used mainly for the manufacture of leather.Goat skin is in great demand for making leather gloves , shoes , luggage, book covers etc.Goat skin was also used in many of the musical instruments .Goat skin has been used since time immemorial as water-containers. The water containers from goat skin were called “Mushk” and the person carrying such containers as “Bhisti”.Pelt is undressed skin of sheep & goats. To prevent putrefication, the skin is treated as well as preserved by dry salting and are graded according to curled type quality of the skin.

The Leather Industry holds a prominent place in the Indian economy. India produces 13.14% of the goat skin production of the world.This sector is known for its consistency in high export earnings and it is among the top ten foreign exchange earners for the country. With an annual turnover of over US$ 7 billion, the export of leather and leather products increased manifold over the past decades and touched US$ 3.40 billion in 2009-10; recording a cumulative annual growth rate of about 5.43% (5 years).It is estimaed that 72.3 million goat skins were produced in India in 2008 (FAOSTAT). India ranks second among the goat skin producing countries of the world, second only to China. India produced 130 thousand tones of goat skin in 2008 ( FAOSTAT) against China producing 351.7 thousand tones and Pakistan 94 thousand tonnes (FAO Stat).

The major production centers for leather and leather products are located in Tamil Nadu - Chennai, Ambur, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi, Trichy, Dindigul ; West Bengal –Kolkata ; Uttar Pradesh –Kanpur, Agra & Noida ; Maharashtra –Mumbai; Punjab –Jallandhar ; Karnataka –Bangalore ; Andhra Pradesh - Hyderabad ; Haryana - Ambala, Gurgaon, Panchkula and Karnal; Delhi. India is the second largest producer of leather footwear and garments in the world.

Shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus : Pyralidae

This pyralid is more commonly known as a pest of sugarcane. Eggs are laid in batches on lower side of leaves.  The emerging larvae move down and cut a hole at the ground level and enters the stem.  Due to feeding of larva, the central shoot begins to wilt and dry causing dead heart. The yield of the crop is affected.New tillers may develop but will not have the physiological maturity and oil content at the time of harvest.

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter's disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil's disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs. Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus. Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Etiology: The etiologic agent of leptospirosis is Leptospira interrogans. It is a thin spiral organism 0.1mm x 6 -20mm, with tightly set coils, and it is characterized by very active motility, by rotating ("spinning") and bending. Usually one or both ends of this single-cell organism are bent or hooked, but straight forms also occur that rotate and travel more slowly than hooked forms. The cells have pointed ends, either or both of which are usually bent into a distinctive hook. Two axial filaments (periplasmic flagella) with polar insertions are located in the periplasmic space. The structure of the flagellar proteins is complex. Leptospires exhibit two distinct forms of movement, translational and nontranslational. Morphologically, all leptospires are indistinguishable, but the morphology of individual isolates varies with subculture in vitro and can be restored by passage in hamsters. Leptospires have a typical double membrane structure in common with other spirochetes, in which the cytoplasmic membrane and peptidoglycan cell wall are closely associated and are overlain by an outer membrane. Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide has a composition similar to that of other Gram-negative bacteria, but has lower endotoxic activity. Leptospires may be stained using carbol fuchsin counterstain. Leptospires are obligate aerobes with an optimum growth temperature of 28 to 30°C. They produce both catalase and oxidase. They grow in simple media enriched with vitamins (vitamins B₂ and B₁₂ are growth factors), long-chain fatty acids, and ammonium salts. Long-chain fatty acids are utilized as the sole carbon source and are metabolized by b-oxidation. Because of their narrow diameter, the leptospires are best visualized by dark-field illumination or phase contrast microscopy and they do not stain readily with aniline dyes. The free living (L. biflexa) and parasitic leptospires (L. interrogans) are morphologically indistinguishable.

Synonyms :  Weil’s disease, Stuttgart disease, Infectious jaundice, Haemoglobinuria, Rice field worker’s disease, Swine handler’s disease, Sugarcane worker’s disease, Canine typhus

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter’s disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil’s disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.  Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs.  Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus.  Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Lipoma is a benign tumor of adipocytes and it is more common in dogs and mostly observed in the trunk, thigh and proximal limbs with rare presence of ulceration.

Liposarcoma is a rare malignant tumor of adipocytes in dogs. Grossly, the neoplastic cells are arranged in less circumscribed to large firm to hard (Figure 67) nodules on the dermis and the nodules noticed on the subcutis are grey white in color.

M/s. AARPY BIO SOLUTION

M/s. ABAN INFRASTRUCTURE LIMITED

M/s. ABHAY-CHEM

M/s. ABIOCIS BIO-SCIENCE PVT LTD

M/s. ABT CORPORATION

Listeria has been divided into seven species with two distinct groups. Among which the Listeria monocyotgenes and Listeria ivanovii are haemolytic and pathogenic for animals. The Listeria murrayi and Listeria grayi are nonhaemolytic, rarely isolated and considered to be non pathogenic. Among which the genus L. monocytogens, being the cause of septicaemia, abortion and CNS infections in a wide range of animal species including humans.

History
L.monocytogenes first described by Murray (1926) who named it as bacterium monocytogenes because of characteristic monocytosis infection in laboratory animals. It was renamed Listerella hepatolytica by Pirie (1927) and the present name given by him in 1940. The Listeria momnocytogenes was first isolated by Gill (1929) from sheep.
Natural Habitat
Listeria species are widely distributed in the environment and can be isolated from soil, faeces, plants, decaying vegetation and silage (pH 5.5) in which the bacteria can multiply. Silage is commonly implicated in outbreaks of listeriosis in cattle and sheep. In poor quality silage the listerial numbers may reach 107 cfu/kg of silage. Asymptomatic faecal carriers occur in man and many animal species. L.monocytogens can be excreted in bovine milk. Human foods associated with listeriosis in man include soft cheeses, milk and poultry meat.

Synonyms: Circling disease, Meningoencephalitis, silage disease

It is an infectious fatal disease of wide range of animals and man characterized by encephalitis. It also causes abortion, endometritis and repeat breeding in farm animals. Historically, Listeria was first isolated in 1926 from a natural disease of rabbits characterized by mononuclear leucocytosis and therefore named as Bacillus monocytogenes by Murray and coworker at Cambridge. Later, Pierie who isolated similar bacillus from liver of gerbils in 1927 named it Listerella hepatolytica in honour of surgeon Joseph Lister and finally renamed it Listeria in 1940 due to taxonomic reasons.

Etiology: The disease is caused by L. monocytogenes. The genus Listeria consists of a group of Gm + bacteria of low G+C content closely related to Bacillus, Clostridium, Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Staphylococcus. Out of 6 species reported, only L. monocytogenes and L. ivanovii are considered virulent. Human cases of L. ivanovii infection are rare whereas L. monocytogenes is an important food borne pathogen. L. monocytogenes has been isolated from a variety of food products. Meat, poultry, dairy and vegetable products have been implicated as vehicles of listeriosis. The organism can be isolated from faeces and silage. The organism can be easily destroyed by ordinary disinfectants but may survive in soil and silage for a considerable period of time.

L. monocytogenes is small, coccoid with a tendency to occur in chains. It is aerobic or microaerophilic. It grows on ordinary media within a temperature range of 4-42°C. Growth is improved by addition of glucose, blood or liver extract. Colonies are β haemolytic on blood agar. It ferments glucose and salicin producing acid without gas. Lactose, maltose and sucrose are fermented slowly or not at all and mannitol is not fermented. It is catalase +. It shows tumbling motility when grown at 25°C but at 37°C is non-motile. It is because peritrichous flagella are produced by the bacillus optimally at 20-30°C but scantily or not at all at 37°C.

Fruit borers : Criptophlebia illepida, Rapala varuna, Deudorix epijarbas, D. Isocrates : Lycaenidae

Of the four species, C.illepida is more damaging to litchi fruits. The larvae bore into developing fruits and seeds, filling the bore-holes with excreta and the infested fruits start rotting.

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

General Terminologies in Livestock Production

Meat is considered as well balanced diet because it is good source of macro and micro nutrients.

Macronutrients-required in large quantity in body i.e proteins, fat and carbohydrates.

Micronutrients-required in lesser quantity by human body i.e vitamins, minerals and fibers.

Organ meat like liver is a good source of glycogen, viatm-A, B1 and nicotinic acid.

Fresh meat is unprocessed.

Raw meat is a fresh meat undergone chilling and freezing.

Refrigeration and rapid cooling can delay the onset of rigor mortis

Fruit –fly : Bactrocera dorsalis :Tephritidae

The process of egg laying and ovipunctures makes the fruits deformed. Feeding of maggots in the pulp induces rotting and fruit drop.

Bark-eating caterpillar : Indarbela quadrinotata

Severe damage on loquat due to I. quadrinotata was observed during October- November in Uttar Pradesh. There are some cultivars like  Thames Pride which are less susceptible.

Colouring Agents
Colouring agents are called as pigments. Tissues may be discoloured (e.g. 
Jaundice, tattoo) or excessively coloured (e.g. Melanosis) in diseases.
Origin
• External or exogenous pigments
• Internal or endogenous pigments
Exogenous Pigmentations
In exogenous pigmentations colouring substances can enter the body by three different routes.
• Respiratory route by inhalation
• Alimentary route by ingestion
• Cutaneous route by injection

Definition

• Aetiology is defined as study of causation of disease.

Classification of Causes

• There are several agents or factors that can produce diseases in animals and can originate from within the body (intrinsic) or outside the body. (extrinsic).

Causes are classified into two categories

1. Predisposing causes (Intrinsic/Endogenous factors)

2. Definitive causes (Extrinsic/Exogenous factors)

Predisposing Causes

• Make the animal susceptible to definitive causes.

A very common condition caused by Malassezia pachydermatis in dogs. It is also caused by predisposing allergic skin disease. It occurs in ventral neck, ventral abdomen, axilla, face, pinnae, feet and forelegs. Tape impression smear will reveal numerous yeasts.

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes that produce sperm (or spermatozoa), ducts that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that add secretions to the sperm to make semen. The adult mammalian testis performs two important functions, spermatogenesis and male sex hormone production. It is an organ structurally designed to produce the haploid male gametes from diploid postnatal germ-line stem cells, i.e. type A spermatogonia.