eChapters

1 Hypoxia caused due to defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anoxic anoxia b) Anaemic anoxia

c) Stagnant anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

1 Ovine ketosis is more common during

a) Early lactation b) Late Pregnancy

c) Early Pregnancy d) Late lactation

1 Hepatosis dietetica in swine is caused by

a) Deficiency of vitamin-E & Se

b) Feeding of high energy diet

c) Excess of unsaturated fatty acid in the diet

d) Deficiency of vitamin A

• Epidemiological definitions

 • List of tests for international trade

 • OIE listed diseases

 • Solutions and reagents

 • Age and body weight of animals

 • Rectal temperature of animals

 • Normal values of blood vascular system

 • Vaccination schedule

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Introduction

The modern biotechnologies (animal cloning, stem cells, and transgenesis) have contributed immensely to increasing livestock productivity, particularly in developed countries, and could help to alleviate poverty and hunger, reduce the threats of diseases and ensure environmental sustainability in developing countries. A wide range of biotechnologies are available and have already been used in developing countries in the animal science disciplines, i.e., animal reproduction, genetics and breeding; animal nutrition and production; and animal health. In animal reproduction, genetics and breeding, artificial insemination (AI) has perhaps been the most widely applied animal biotechnology, particularly in combination with cryopreservation, allowing significant genetic improvement for productivity as well as the global dissemination of selected male germplasm. Complementary technologies such as monitoring reproductive hormones, oestrus synchronization and semen sexing can improve the efficiency of AI. Embryo transfer provides the same opportunities for females, albeit on a much smaller scale and at a much greater price. Biotechnologies in animal health are used to increase the precision of disease diagnosis as well as for disease control and treatment. The Biotechnology Industry Organization claims that the genetic engineering of animals in agriculture offers ''tremendous benefit to the animal by enhancing health, well-being and animal welfare'' (Gottlieb and Wheeler 2008). Further, improvements are still needed in product composition and production efficiency, especially in growth, disease resistance, and reproduction. In this regard, transgenic animals stem cells, cloning and other emerging biotechnologies will have important roles in producing more and higher quality animal food.

• General considerations

 • Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)

 • SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE)

• Nucleic acid hybridization

 • Radio labelled probes

 • Biotin labelled probes

 • DNA finger printing

 • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

 • Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT PCR)

Introduction

Genetic programs in livestock have been extensively used to improve their productivity over the last 50 years. The traditional approach of breeding, based on quantitative genetics principle, has been very successful (Schaeffer, 2006), without knowledge of genes increasing or decreasing in herds. Effective progeny testing program and use of genetically proven bulls have made drastic genetic improvement in livestock populations. Further advances in computation for genetic merit have further added to improvement process. Livestock producers presently are focusing on overall development of livestock with improved health, production, reproduction and longevity and therefore, the traits are becoming the part of selection program (Decker et al., 2009). Advancement in molecular biology along with high-throughput genotyping has led to discovery of a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in livestock (Van Tassell et al., 2008). SNP arrays covering the entire genome may explain most of the genetic variation in important traits of livestock (Meuwissen et al., 2001). These SNPs may act as molecular markers and be used as a substitute for phenotypic selection. This process, in a broad sense is known as molecular or marker-assisted breeding and describes selection strategies including marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genome wide selection (GWS) or genomic selection (GS).

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a mounting global health emergency that threatens the effectiveness of modern medicine and veterinary care. In India, the challenge is compounded by high antibiotic consumption, unregulated access to antimicrobials, and widespread use in agriculture and animal husbandry. The World Health Organization has identified the Eskape pathogens— Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiellapneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp, as priority organisms due to their ability to “escape” the effects of antibiotics and cause life-threatening infections. Simultaneously, zoonotic transmission of resistant bacteria from animals to humans is emerging as a critical concern, particularly in regions with close human-animal interfaces like Jammu & Kashmir. The importance of Eskape pathogens to the establishment and promotion of antimicrobial resistance in hospitalized patients was first recognized in a 2008 by Rice. The morbidity and mortality associated with Gram-negative Eskape pathogens is particularly concerning, as new antimicrobial agentsthose with activity against multidrug-resistant and pan-resistant Gram-negative strainshave not emerged as quickly as needed. Consequently, nosocomial infections continue to pose a serious threat to patient health, especially among critically ill inpatients and those undergoing invasive procedures or requiring the placement of medical devices. Eskape pathogens are well known for their intricate resistance mechanisms, often leaving clinicians with limited therapeutic options. Due to their significant role in driving antimicrobial resistance within hospital settings, consistent and systematic monitoring of their resistance profiles is crucial for guiding effective infection control and therapeutic strategies.This also serves as a critical indicator of regional resistance trends among hospitalized populations. In animal sector, the wastewater of livestock slaughterhouses, animal products (raw or processed) have been considered a source of multidrugresistant bacteria with clinical implications as well as their dissemination into the environment and entry into human food chain.Bacteria from the livestock can act as opportunistic pathogens and carry resistance genes that are important for both veterinary and human health. Since many antibiotics are used in both human and animal health fields, the resistant bacteria enter the environmentespecially through wastewater treatment plants affected by slaughterhouse wasteposing risks to public health. Among the various sources, the water used during poultry slaughtering often contains multidrug-resistant bacteria and can expose slaughterhouse workers to infection. To reduce these risks, it’s important to develop strategies that limit bacterial release into the water systems and prevent their spread to people and the environment. The development of AMR has been attributed to several factors comprising of microbial mutations rendering the antibiotics ineffective, human interference such as over use and over-prescription of antimicrobials, agricultural and commercial application of antimicrobials in the animal sector, and human behavioural factors (Vijayalaxmi et al., 2021). An expected annual rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) by 5–10 % annually has been predicted by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Annual Report 2021 due to wide spread abusive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics (ICMR Annual Report 2021). Twelve families of priority drug-resistant bacteria (critical, high and medium) posing great threat to human health in terms of resistance to selected antimicrobials have been identified in priority pathogen list (PPL) of Global Action Plan, World Health Organisation (WHO) to stimulate the research towards the development of new antimicrobials against a particular drug-resistance (WHO,2017). From the Indian perspective, AMR is a grave concern as the Indian population is the highest consumer of antibiotics in the world (10.7 units per person). The poor public health systems, hospital infections, high rate of infectious diseases, easy availability of inexpensive

Digestion is the process by which food is converted into substances that can be absorbed and assimilated by a living organism. In most animals it is accomplished in the digestive tract by the mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of foods into simpler chemical compounds. Digestion usually consists of two elements: a mechanical/ physical stage, e.g. mastication, churning, emulsification, in which no chemical bonds are broken and no enzymes are required; and a chemical stage requiring enzymes in which complex food molecules are broken down by hydrolysis into a state in which they can be absorbed.

Moraxella bovis occurs as short (1.0 to 1.5 x 1.5 to 2.5 μm), plump Gramnegative rods or, occasionally, cocci which typically occur in pairs. This organism is non-motile, aerobic and usually catalase-positive and oxidasepositive. Although proteolytic, it is unable to utilize sugars. Growth, which is enhanced by the addition of blood or serum to media, does not occur on MacConkey agar. The optimal temperature for growth is 33-35°C. Most M.phenylpyruvica strains will grow on MacConkey agar. But M.bovis and M.lacunata are unable to do so.
Virulent strains, when isolated from cases of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, are fimbriate, haemolytic and grow into the agar. Species, other than M.bovis, which are periodically isolated from clinical specimens, are generally regarded as non-pathogenic.
Usual Habitat
Moraxella bovis is found on mucous membranes of carrier cattle. The organism is susceptible to desiccation and is short-lived in the environment. It can survive for up to 72 hours in the salivary organs and on the body surface of flies, which can act as vectors.
Colonial Appearance
On blood agar after 48 hours’ incubation the colonies of M.bovis are flat, round, small (1 mm diameter), greyish-white and friable, surrounded by a narrow zone of complete haemolysis. The appearance is not unlike that of a beta-haemolytic streptococcus. New isolates are often piliated and erode the agar, sinking into it. Colonial growths will autoagglutinate when suspended in saline. On subculture, colonial variation is common, pili are no longer formed and the colonies are butyrous and less likely to autoagglutinate. Some colonies can become non-haemolytic. The strains of M. hovis (M.equi) isolated from
horses are non-haemolytic even on primary isolation. M.lacunata and M. phenylpyruvica are non-haemolytic on blood agar and some strains of M. phenylpyruvica will grow on MacConkey agar.

1. Morphology of Bacteria
Structure of Bacteria
Bacteria are very small with a diameter of 0.5 – 1 μm in size. Due to this small size the surface area / volume ratio is very high compared to that of large organisms of similar shape. The large surface area compared to a small volume facilitates easy nourishment of all areas of the cell. So there is no circulatory mechanism to distribute the nutrients and there is little or no cytoplasmic movement within the cell.
i) Shape
Bacteria exhibit three types of morphology;
• Spherical - cocci (coccus) - Greek word kokkos, meaning a berry
• Straight rods - bacilli (bacillus) - Latin word bacillus, meaning a stick
• Helically curved rods -spirilla (spirillum)
Variations in these basic forms are also seen. Eg: cocobacillary, ovoid and filamentous.

Abstract

Mulberry is a fast growing deciduous woody perennial plant. It has a deep root system. the leaves are simple, alternative, stipulate, petiolate, entire or lobed. The number of lobes varies from one to five. Plants are generally dioecious. Inflorescence is catkin with pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. Inflorescence is always auxiliary. Male catkins are usually longer than the female catkins. Male flowers are loosely arranged and after shedding the pollen, the inflorescence dries and falls off. These are four presistent parianth lobes and four stamens implexed in bud. Female Inflorescence is usually short and the flowers are very compactly arranged. There are four presistent parianth lobes. The ovary is one-celled and the stigma is bilid. The chief pollinating agent in mulberry is wind. Mulberry fruit is a sorosis, mainly violet black in  colour. 

The muscular system allows movement and necessary functions such as circulation, digestion, and breathing. It is made up of muscles and connective tissue, such as tendons. The muscular system also helps provide support and shape. In the body, muscles have primary functions to provide motion, maintain posture, and generate heat.

Key Points

• The main objective of managing open fractures is to neutralize further damage to the surrounding tissue while executing prompt, stable osteosynthesis and immobilization.

• Discomfort management should be considered because musculoskeletal diseases can cause severe discomfort.

Degenerative Myopathies

It is a degenerative disease of the musculature. Endocrine imbalances (hyperadrenocorticism, hypothyroidism, and hyperthyroidism), hypokalemia in cats, ischemic myonecrosis in recumbent cattle, post-exercise rhabdomyolysis, chemical agents, poisonous plants, and drug-induced degenerative conditions are some of the possible associations with it.

Sciarid(mushroom flies): Bradysia paupera, Lycoriella auripila: Sciaridae

The larvae feed on the mycelial attachments and restrict the growth of the spawn. The maggots also feed on the developing mushrooms or pinheads and thus cause loss in yield. They also bore the developing mushrooms and render them hollow.

Mycobacteria are slender rods of varying lengths that sometimes show branching filamentous form resembling ‘fungal mycelium’. Hence, the name mycobacteria, meaning fungus like bacteria.
Although cytochemically gram positiive, the Mycobacteria do not take up the dyes of the gram stain because the cell walls are rich in lipids – Mycolic acid. Once a dye has been taken up by the cells they are not easily decolourised, even by acid-alcohol. Mycobacteria are therefore called as acid-fast bacilli. The genus includes animal and human pathogens as well as saprophytic members often referred to as atypical, anonymous, opportunistic, tuberculoid and MOTT (Mycobacteria other than typical tubercle) bacilli. Clasification of Mycobacteria (Tubercle Bacilli)
I. Slowly growing Mycobacteria
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes human tuberculosis in human and dogs.
• Mycobacterium bovis causes bovine tuberculosis in many animal species and also cause tuberculosis in human
• Mycobacterium africanum causes human tuberculosis.
• The human type (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) is primarily a pathogen for man. But can cause disease in cattle, pigs, dogs, monkeys, parrots and other species. The bovine type (Mycobacterium bovis) is a common cause of disease in domestic animal particularly cattle, pigs, cat, dogs and horse. The avian type (Mycobacterium avium) is primarily a pathogen for birds. But can cause disease in cattle, sheep, goat and pigs.

Etiology

The condition is characterized by formation of granuloma to pyogranulomatous dermatitis with paniculitis. The causative organism is normally present in the macrophage which may be Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M? bovis and M? microti.

Etiology

Genus Mycobacterium contains many pathogenic species that can cause disease in birds (M. avium, M. tuberculosis, M. genavenes, M. gordonae). Within M. avium, organisms are divided into four sub species. M. avium sp avium, M.avium sp silvaticum, M. avium sp homnissuis and M. avium sp paratuberculosis. Mycobacterium avium sp avium - has wide host spectrum; poultry, pigeons, raptors, ratites and wild birds. M. genavense- affects Psittacines and passarines. M. tuberculosis- psittacines and other cage birds, and wild birds in captivity. M.bovis- Psittacines and others.

Under natural conditions, M. avium sp avium does not cause severe disease in mammals except in rabbit and pig. Majority of mycobacteriosis in pigs is by M. avium sp avium. In cattle and other mammal infection by M. avium remain localized and is known to give positive reaction to mammalian tuberculin. The disease in caged and wild birds in captivity is common with M. tuberculosis, because of its close contact with humans. Tuberculosis is a serious problem in zoological gardens. M. avium is being isolated in increasing number of immunocompromized human patients.