eChapters

Abdominal organs in different species of animals have distinctive features with respect to their shape, size, location and echogenicity and echo texture. This is true for dogs and cats also. Therefore, information with respect to sonographic features of dogs cannot be taken for granted for cats in totality

Q1. The exit of drug from C.S.F. irrespective of its entry is by

1. Passive diffusion
2. Filtration
3. Facilitated diffusion
4. All of the above

Q2. The number of half-lives required to reach 99% of steady state concentration is

1. 3.3
2. 4.4
3. 5.5
4. 6.6

Q3. The receptor concept was first introduced by

1. J.N. Langley in 1878
2. Simonis in 1964
3. Paul Ehrlich in 1926
4. Walksman in 1826

SOURCES OF POISON

1. Malicious poisoning

Unlawful or criminal killing of the animals by certain toxicants as arsenic, Insecticide, datura etc.

 2.Accidental    poisoning    
A) Natural sources 
 ? Plants - e.g. Lantana, datura etc.
 ? Animals - e.g. snake bite etc.
 ? Microbes - fungi (aflatoxicoses etc.), bacteria (Botulinum toxin) etc.
 ? Minerals - Se, As, fluoride etc.
 B)  Man made sources
 ? Agrochemicals - Insecticides, Herbicides etc.
 ? Industrial wastes - Mercury, Copper, Lead etc.
 ? Household products - disinfectants (phenol), Napthelene etc.
 ? Therapeutic agents - paracetamol in cats be lethal
 ? Food & feed - Genetically modified food (GM)
 ? Environmental pollutants & managemental practices

ABSTRACT

Colchicine, one of the most widely used alkaloids is synthesized in Gloriosa species, a plant of great medicinal importance. The seeds, tubers and leaves of six different species of Gloriosa were phytochemically investigated for alkaloids and were found to contain colchicine and colchicoside. These alkaloids were isolated and quantified by HPLC analysis. This is the first report of alkaloids in Gloriosa plantii, Gloriosa lutea, and Gloriosa vuchuria. The colchicine and colchicoside content of the Gloriosa species was found to be organ dependent as there was statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between different organs but not among different species under study. The total alkaloids are organ as well as species dependent as there were statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between all the species as well as organs of different species of Gloriosa under study and its organs.

1. Introduction
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a systematic quality system essential for
ensuring the reliability, consistency, and integrity of laboratory data, particularly when the findings are used for regulatory decision-making. GLP ensures that laboratory studies are conducted in a scientific manner, maintaining high standards of ethical practice, precision, and reproducibility, with a primary focus on ensuring public and environmental safety. Introduced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1978, GLP gained global recognition through the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which established guidelines for its implementation. GLP principles are now widely adopted in regulatory testing for pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food safety, and environmental testing. The OECD’s guidance on GLP has been instrumental in developing standards across the globe, ensuring that test results are scientifically valid and can be accepted internationally. In Asia, particularly in India and other developing countries, GLP compliance has gained increasing importance as pharmaceutical, environmental, and chemical industries expand. Regulatory bodies in these regions have gradually aligned their standards with international norms to ensure their competitiveness in global markets. This chapter discusses the key SOPs necessary for GLP compliance and provides a regional perspective, focusing on India and other Asian nations, where GLP frameworks are evolving to meet international standards.
2. Objective of GLP
The overarching objective of GLP is to ensure that laboratory data is accurate, reliable, and reproducible across different studies. The scientific and regulatory communities rely on GLP to ensure that findings from preclinical studies and safety evaluations can be trusted and utilized for regulatory approval.
The key objectives of GLP include
• Accuracy and Integrity of Data: GLP ensures that every aspect of data collection, analysis, and reporting is conducted with integrity and accuracy, preventing errors or falsification that could affect regulatory decisions.

This chapter focuses on the statistical methods used for method development. These are categories as follow :

1.SUPAC- Scale-Up and Post-Approval Changes

2.PAT -Process Analytical Technique

1. SUPAC - The acronym “ SUPAC “stands for “Scale-Up and Post- Approval Changes” . It refers to the FDA-recommended testing and filing actions to be taken by a pharmaceutical firm when it changes the manufacturing processes of a drug product that has been approved via a New Drug Application (NDA), an Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA), or an Abbreviated Antibiotic Drug Application (AADA). FDA has provided its recommendations to industry in the form of SUPAC Guidances or supac guidelines.

Introduction
AMR is a critical global problem that affects human, environmental, and animal health. AMR is a complex problem; it is necessary to look at it from different disciplines to frame it within the One Health approach [Shrestha,2018].The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as a top ten global public health threat.Globally, there were an estimated 4.95 million deaths associated with bacterial AMR in 2019, including 1.27 million deaths attributable to bacterial AMR [O’Neill, J. (2016)]. The economic impact is equally alarming. The World Bank projects that AMR could lead to an additional US$ 1 trillion in healthcare costs by 2050, and over US$ 1 trillion in annual gross domestic product (GDP) losses by 2030.The One Health approach is defined as a joint effort of various disciplines that come together to provide solutions for human, animal, and environmental health. AMR is linked to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, cattle raising, and human medicine). Under the pressure of antimicrobial selection, bacteria acquire resistance genes and mobile genetic elements that can spread to other bacteria of the same or different genus. When bacteria acquire resistance to antimicrobials, they also acquire a greater ability to proliferate in animals, humans, and the natural world. Mismanagement of antimicrobials, inadequate infection control, agricultural debris, contaminants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance [Collignon,et.,al,2018]. AMR represents a global public health problem, for which epidemiological surveillance systems have been established, aiming to promote collaborations directed at the well-being of human and ani mal health and the balance of the ecosystem. Several international organizations (The World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE], WHO, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]) have joined forces to develop a Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance-WHO. Action taken in this plan included understanding the AMR from surveillance and research. The advisory group established guidelines for AMR surveillance to ensure all countries implement integrated surveillance, which will cover the use and consumption of antimicrobials in the human and animal population. These guide lines will provide a clear understanding of how AMR spreads in different settings and specific areas. It will allow to study the correlation between AMR and antimicrobial use in a different setting (animals, humans, and environment) and to assess the effect of interventions within and between sectors [W.H.O 2015,2017].

Source

? Consumption of seeds (dog/cat), Baits containing strychinine kept for foxes, rats, mice

? Cattle are more susceptible to strychnine poisoning parenterally than orally because strychnine is destroyed in the rumen

? Ingestion of birds or rats poisoned with strychnine and ingestion of strychnine treated seeds of peanuts, wheat (in human).

? In Seeds, 1.53- 3.24% total alkaloids out of which 50% is strychnine.

? Loganin (glycoside), Vomicine, α-colubrine, betacolubrine, pseudo strychinine (alkaloid), Brucine, strychnine and strychnicine (leaves), Brucine and small amount of strychnine (bark)

? Average amount of strychnine and brucine in nuxvomica seeds is 1.23 and 1.55% respectively.

? Strychnine- an indole alkaloid found in seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica is extremely stable and can be detected in specimens many years even after the death of animals.

? It is rapidly absorbed from the GIT and parentrally significant amount found in liver and kidney while small amount reaches CNS.

? Metabolized by hepatic MFOs and primarily excreted in urine within 10 hrs.

Source

? Consumption of seeds (dog/cat), Baits containing strychinine kept for foxes, rats, mice

? Cattle are more susceptible to strychnine poisoning parenterally than orally because strychnine is destroyed in the rumen

? Ingestion of birds or rats poisoned with strychnine and ingestion of strychnine treated seeds of peanuts, wheat (in human).

? In Seeds, 1.53- 3.24% total alkaloids out of which 50% is strychnine.

? Loganin (glycoside), Vomicine, α-colubrine, betacolubrine, pseudo strychinine (alkaloid), Brucine, strychnine and strychnicine (leaves), Brucine and small amount of strychnine (bark)

? Average amount of strychnine and brucine in nuxvomica seeds is 1.23 and 1.55% respectively.

? Strychnine- an indole alkaloid found in seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica is extremely stable and can be detected in specimens many years even after the death of animals.

? It is rapidly absorbed from the GIT and parentrally significant amount found in liver and kidney while small amount reaches CNS.

? Metabolized by hepatic MFOs and primarily excreted in urine within 10 hrs.

1. Introduction

The heritage of medicinal plants used in India has an ancient history. The epic of Ramayana witnessed Sanjivani Booti as life saving drug. Two important compendia on medicinal plants i.e., Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were published between 1000 BC and 600 BC. In these Ayurvedic literatures, uses of more than 1,200 plant drugs along with their action and specific therapeutic applications are mentioned. Charaka made 50 vargas (groups) of drugs while Sushruta made 38 ganas (groups) of drugs (Singh and Gautam, 1997). India, with its diverse agro-climate, harbors large plant-diversity. Eastern Himalayas comprising Darjeeling, Sikkim and adjacent Nepal as well as Bhutan hills are very rich in florastic diversity, several of which are endangered but economically useful medicinal plants with high demand in national as well as in international market (Manandhar, 1999). A great many of these wild Himalayan medicinal plants have found their way into modern bio-pharmaceuticals and bio-cosmetics in recent times (Rai et. al., 2000). One such species is Nepalese Kutki (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Pennell) belongs to family Scrophulariaceae.

P. scrophulariiflora is better known by the name Nepali Kutki. The rhizome of this plant has been found to contain the chemicals like Kutkin, D-mannitol and vanillic acid (Yang, 1996). It is said to have effects on fever, malnutrition due to digestive disturbance, jaundice, diarrhoea and dysentery (Zhang et al., 1994). In India it is valued for their demonstrated value as an antibiotic. They are also used as an adulterant of, or as substitute for, Gentiana kurrooa. Properties that these two species share include the ability to stimulate appetite and gastric secretions (Jain, 1968). In Nepal rhizome of this species is also used as a cathartic, in case of dyspepsia, as a purgative as well as in the treatment of scorpion bites (Anon., 1993). Some of the important active photochemicals are listed in Table 1.

1. Introduction

Inflammation have been linked with pathogenesis of many diseases like Cancer, Atheriosclerosis, Neurodegenerative diseases, Diabetes Mellitus, Obesity, Arthritis, Cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson’s disease and other deadly diseases (Lee and Weinblatt, 2001). Inflammation can result to genetic defects and immunoregulation and mechanism defects which lead to tissue damage (Jones, 2006). Anti-inflammatory drug was serendipity discovered without thorough investigation and even not effective in term of controlling inflammation and now record several side effect just like other synthetic drugs, thus, safe biological sources are now been considered. Biological sources for active compounds that have medical importance are increase in recent time (Kaboli, 2001). Also, due to the residual side effects of synthetic compounds that form bulk of the materials used for the production of pharmaceutical products. Aspirin can cause stomach bleeding, acetaminophen can cause liver damage Cox-2 inhbitor Vioxx and Celebrex can cause heart problem and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s) was reported to contribute to numerous death (Clegg et al., 2006; Wolf et al., 1999; Sing, 1998).

1. INTRODUCTION

The medicinal plants have been used by humans from the pre-historical times. Traditional medicine based on herbal remedies has always played a key role in the health systems of many countries. In India, the native people are exploiting a variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. Medicinal plants are widely used by all sections of the population and country is richly endowed with a wide variety of plants of medicinal value, which represents the great national resource (Alok, 1991).

It is estimated that at least 70 percent of population relay on herbal medicines for primary health care in our country (Holley and Williams, 1996). In India, different classical medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani are being practiced in the country and in addition to innumerable local folk medicinal traditions exist. More than 8000 species of wild plants are known to be used in India for the treatment of various health problems (Ved et al., 2000). This rich medicinal wealth is mainly distributed in two biodiversity hotspots that are Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. Numerous studies have pointed out that many drugs that are used in commerce have come from folk-use and use of plants by indigenous cultures (Anon, 1994). Medicinal plants form a heterogeneous group in growth, habit, distribution, reproduction, phenology and their ecological requirements.

ABSTRACT

In vitro culture and cryopreservation techniques are complementary to ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources that are vegetatively propagated or having recalcitrant seeds. An in vitro germplasm conservation study has been conducted on Banana passionfruit (Passiflora mollissima), a plant used in rural medicine. Micropropagated plants survived up to 12 weeks in Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 0.5% sucrose. Cryopreservation experiments were carried out on the explants (apical and/or axillary buds), pre-treated with vitrification solutions, dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) and PVS2 (Plant vitrification solution-2) with or without desiccation treatment and frozen in liquid nitrogen (LN). The survival and regeneration of apical buds were higher than axillary buds when pre-treated with 15% DMSO. Treatment with 20 % PVS2 for 1 h followed by 100 % PVS2 for 20 min gave maximum shoot recovery (40%) from cryopreserved apical buds. Desiccation alone was not successful but combination of pre-treatment of PVS2 (20% for 1h and 100% for 20min) with 3 h desiccation gave 30% plant survival from frozen apical buds. Regenerated shoots were rooted on MS medium with 1.0 mgl-1 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 0.2 % activated charcoal.

Introduction
A study protocol tool is a very important comprehensive document that deliberately outlines the whole research rationale design and plan for the successful execution of the epidemiological/ an experimental/ a clinical study. It serves as a blueprint for how the study will be conducted, ensuring consistency, transparency, and adherence to ethical guidelines. The document contains the background information available in literatures on the basis of which the researchers plan to conduct the study with objectives that will answer research related questions with ensuring adherence to ethical standards.
Basic Elements of a Study Protocol
The study protocol includes different components including background Information available in literature for research plan, objectives or purpose of conducting the research, explanation of the study design, selection and exclusion of subjects, treatment of subjects, assessment of outcome safety and efficacy. The purpose of conducting research includes questions like why the study needs to be done and what will be its relevance to scientific society or environment. To achieve these objectives the researchers, design their research work for proper execution of research objectives. The study which is to be designed has structured framework for researchers to answer their research questions and obtain reliable and valid results. The study design not only helps the researcher in learning technical skills but also discovering the creative voice (planning and execution). The study design includes different methods, processes and necessary resources for accomplishment of research problems. The study design also incorporates the methods of data collection and statistical analysis which meets the requirements of desired outcome. The implementation of an appropriate study design guarantees a methodical and exacting research process, resulting in more precise findings and the appropriate type of analysis to address the research-related queries. This makes the conclusions more reliable and legitimate. By ensuring that the data are reliable, repeatable, and validated, a well-designed study contributes to the advancement of knowledge. Additionally, it helps to control biases and confounding variables that could affect the results and helps to clarify the methodology of the study, which

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly becoming one of the most critical challenges in global health, with profound implications for both human and veterinary medicine. The increasing prevalence of drug-resistant bacterial infections has eroded the effectiveness of many frontline antibiotics, making even routine treatments more complex and less predictable. Surveillance data from the World Health Organization’s GLASS initiative highlights the scale of the problem: resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in Escherichia coli and methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus has reached alarming levels in dozens of countries, complicating the management of common infections and raising the stakes for therapeutic innovation. In veterinary settings, the crisis is equally urgent. Resistance has emerged across nearly all major antibiotic classes used in livestock, poultry, and companion animals. Contributing factors include widespread antibiotic use in agriculture, limited diagnostic stewardship, and the ease with which resistance genes spread within and between microbial communities. These trends not only threaten animal health and productivity but also increase the risk of zoonotic transmission, blurring the boundaries between veterinary and human public health. Global health authorities have long warned of a “post-antibiotic era” - a time when conventional antibiotics may no longer offer reliable protection against bacterial pathogens. Recent reports suggest that this era is no longer hypothetical. If current trajectories continue, drug-resistant infections could account for up to 10 million deaths annually by 2050, with staggering economic consequences. To address this escalating threat, researchers are exploring alternative therapeutic strategies that go beyond traditional antibiotics. Among the most promising are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and bacteriophage therapy. AMPs are naturally occurring molecules found in animals and other organisms, known for their broad-spectrum activity and rapid bactericidal effects. Their ability to disrupt bacterial membranes through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions makes them less susceptible to resistance mechanisms that target conventional antibiotics. Bacteriophages - viruses that specifically infect and lyse bacteria - offer a complementary approach. Phage therapy is highly targeted, capable of eliminating specific bacterial strains while sparing beneficial microbiota. Phage’s can also evolve alongside bacterial populations, potentially outpacing resistance development. In veterinary medicine, phage-based treatments have shown promise in managing infections in poultry, swine, cattle, and companion animals, particularly where antibiotic options are limited or ineffective. The combined use of AMPs and bacteriophages represents a novel and potentially synergistic strategy for tackling AMR. By leveraging distinct mechanisms of action and delivery profiles, these agents may enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce resistance selection pressure, and improve outcomes across a range of veterinary applications. This chapter explores the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic challenges associated with delivering such combination therapies, with a focus on optimizing their use in the fight against antimicrobial resistance.

ABSTRACT

Nature provides a wealth of information on natural products with novel architectur and very high medical potential. Given the enormous medical and economic impac of natural product pharmaceuticals we have obvious reasons to improve the activitie of the existing compounds and to discover new metabolites. Although natural product are a proven source of drug candidates they exert powerful physiological effects in one form or other. Only a small proportion of these compounds satisfy the rigorou criteria set by the pharmaceutical company. Also the amount of active compound isolated from the natural products is so small that it is difficult to exploit it in an industrial level. So there arises a need to synthesise synthetic compounds which ma be tested for bioactivity from the easily available starting materials by a simpl methodology. The quest for finding new drugs against various diseases such as AIDS cancer etc. act as a motivating factor in designing synthesis of new materials. In thi way most of the compounds synthesized can be tested for bioactivity to be effectivel used to fi ht a ainst certain dreadful diseases.

We have synthesised some polycyclic heterocycles through cycloaddition methodology and explored the bioactivity of the products. These molecules have basic skeleton of the natural products and possess the biological properties of the natural products. Thus they may be termed as pseudo natural products. These compounds are screened for antifungal and antibacterial activities and are found to possess bioactivity.

Keywords : Heterocyclic compounds, antifungal activity, DMSO, pathogens, inhibition zone.

The traditional medicines are actually used in human for number of years and therefore its clinical existence comes as a presumption. However, for bringing more objectivity and also to confirm traditional claims, systematic clinical trials are necessary. In Ayurvedic medicine research, clinical experiences, observations or available data becomes a starting point. In conventional drug research it comes at the last. Thus, the drug discovery based on Ayurveda follows a ‘Reverse Pharmacology’ path546.

Nevertheless, all the critical Pharmacopoeial tests such as dissolution time, microbial, pesticide and heavy metals contamination etc. must be in accordance with global standards. It is important to ensure that all the Ayurvedic medicine manufacture is in accordance with Current Good Manufacturing Procedures for herbal products547,548. There have been concerns about quality standards and safety issues of herbal medicines549. The need for new regulations for botanical medicines has also been frequently stressed and some such regulations are coming in force in different parts of the world550,551.

Introduction

Test of pollen viability (extent of pollen viability) is important in pollination experiments to ensure fertility/seed setting. It is also important in monitoring state of pollens during storage in ecological/ taxonomic studies as well as during research on pollen biochemistry, genetics, stigma interactions, and incompatibility studies. Pollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to accomplish post-pollination events to achieve fertilization. Pollen viability test has gained importance particularly in plant breeding and hybrid seed production experiments/ practices. In this chapter, you will be acquainted with the basics of pollen viability test. However, for more professional knowledge on the topic readers are suggested to refer specialized books.

Pollen Viability Test

It is important to know the extent of viability of pollens used in pollination experiment, in finding fertility of a plant of interest, to monitor state of pollen on storage, in ecological/taxonomic studies, as well as in research on biochemistry, genetics, stigma interaction, incompatibility assay, etc. of pollen. Several pollen viability tests have been developed time-to-time. It is recommended to initially use different tests for a given pollen type to find out the most appropriate method that provides reliable result on pollen viability. It is important to note that every procedure requires standardization of protocol according to the sample used. Following different tests are used for assessing pollen viability.

1. In-vitro Pollen Germination Test

It is a simple, speedy, and quantitative test for assessing pollen viability. In this method, a collection/sample of pollen is germinated in vitro and observed under microscope. The percentage of germinating pollens (producing pollen tube) after appropriate treatment and a given period of time is determined. The percentage provides an index of viability of the pollen sample.

Introduction

Seed is a living entity (mature ovule) consisting of a tiny plant in embryonic stage along with the stored food protected by an outer layer known as seed coat. Seed is an important biological input in agriculture, which is economically important for successful crop husbandry. Cotyledons serve as the source of nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and oils) that not only nurture the plant at the early developmental (seedling) stages of plant but also the vegetarian (heterotroph) organisms. Being one of the important inputs in agriculture, viability of seed needs to be assessed to know the germination percentage of seeds used to raise a crop. Since viability of seeds may deteriorate on storage depending on the storage conditions. Therefore, often it becomes important to test viability/germinability and vigour of seeds before being used for raising a crop or conducting an experiment. In this chapter, we briefly discuss about the different methods which can be used for testing the viability of seeds.

Seed Viability

Seed viability can be defined as the capability of the seed to germinate and produce a normal seedling within a specified period. In other words, seed viability indicates how many seeds in a lot are alive and could develop into plants under appropriate field conditions. It is very important that most of the stored seeds are capable of germinating when sown in a field. They must possess higher viability at the beginning of storage and maintain it over the storage. A seed with high initial viability survives longer in storage; however, the viability deteriorates slowly at first and then rapidly as the storage prolongs. It is important to know the duration of storage after which a considerable decline in viability occurs under given storage conditions so that to take necessary action to revive the seeds. Excessive deterioration in vianility of seeds may lead to loss of the seed/material/ germplasm.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a major worldwide health issue, requiring the search for natural, safe, and efficient substitutes for synthetic antibiotics. The ancient medical system known as Ayurveda lists a variety of polyherbal compositions having jwaraghna (antipyretic) and krimighna (antimicrobial) qualities. A traditional decoction preparation that is frequently prescribed for microbial infestations (krimi), wound infections, fevers, and skin conditions called Nimbadi Kwatha.Strong herbs that have been separately shown to have antibacterial and immunomodulatory properties, including Nimba (Azadirachta indica), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Triphala (Haritaki, Bibhitaki, Amalaki), Vasa (Adhatoda vasica), and Katuki (Picrorhiza kurroa), make up Nimbadi Kwatha. Triphala has antimicrobial and antioxidant qualities, Guduchi boosts host immunity and has antibacterial qualities, and Neem provides broad-spectrum antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity. According to experimental studies, giloy extracts are effective against a variety of pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It has a distinct antimicrobial activity that involves two mechanisms: it enhances phagocytosis, changes cytokine production, and activates macrophages. In light of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), T. cordifolia is a prospective option for the development of plant-based antimicrobials and integrated therapies. Its use is backed by both modern pharmacological research and ethnomedicinal history for infectious disorders and immune health. Nimbadi Kwatha and its derivatives, including Nimbadi Ubatan and soap formulations, have been shown to have antibacterial properties by modern pharmacological research, which also showed a notable inhibition of bacterial and fungal growth in vitro. These results demonstrate the value of Ayurveda in treating infectious diseases and lend credence to its traditional claims. To close the gap between traditional knowledge and contemporary evidence, a thorough analysis of Nimbadi Kwatha’s antibacterial impact is essential. It also identifies the plant’s potential as a natural remedy for drug-resistant infections.