eChapters

1. Introduction

Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. is a small tree belonging to the family Rutaceae; resembles Citrus in general aspects and is considered a close wild relative of Citrus. The species is commonly called as wild lime, in Malayalam it is called as Kattunaragam and in Tamil Katuuelumichai. A. monophylla is used in Ayurveda, Folk and Siddha systems of medicine. It is used for the treatment of rheumatoid pain and glandular swelling (Sankaranarayan et al., 2010). The root is believed to be antispasmodic (Kiritikar and Basu, 1999), the leaves are often applied for itching and other skin complaints (Panda, 2004) and acridone alkaloids isolated from roots were reported to have anti-allergic activity (Chukaew et al., 2008). The chloroform extract of leaves has shown antiviral activity (Chansakaow et al., 1996). Besides its medicinal value A. monophylla leaves are used as flavoring agent, berries are used for making pickles, juice of berries are used for dyeing purpose and wood as timber. It is also useful as a rootstock for breeding new cultivars of Citrus Linn. (Guha Bakshi et al., 1999). This species has high medicinal value and the natural population is under threat due to habitat destruction, use of wood as firewood, collection of fruits for making pickles and harvesting of leaves, roots for medicinal purposes by the local communities. Hence there is a need for developing an appropriate conservation strategy for this species.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants continue to be an important therapeutic aid for alleviating the ailments of humankind. The search for eternal health and longevity for remedies to relive pain and discomfort drove early man to explore his immediate natural surroundings to the use of many plants, animal products and minerals etc for the development of a variety of therapeutic agents. Today, there is a renewed interest in traditional medicine and an increasing demand for more drugs from plants sources. This revival of interest in plant derived drugs is mainly due to the current widespread belief that “green medicine” is safe and more dependable than the costly synthetic drugs, many of which have adverse side effects.

Vitex negundo or Five-Leaved Chaste Tree is commonly known as Nirgundi in India. It is a large aromatic shrub belonging to the Verbenaceae family of plants. It is distributed throughout the greater part of India up to an altitude of 1500 m in the outer Himalayas. It is a gregarious shrub that is found abundant along the banks or rivers, in moist situations, open waste lands and near the deciduous forests. It is widely planted as a hedge plant along the roads and between the roads.

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are the most important source of life saving drugs for the majority of the World’s population. Plants have been an important source of medicine for thousands of years. Diabetes is one of the major degenerative diseases in the world today. It is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease. About 70 - 80% of deaths in diabetic patients are due to vascular disease. Diabetes mellitus is also associated with hyperlipidaemia with profound alteration in the concentration and composition of lipid (Odetola et al., 2006). Changes in the concentration of lipid with diabetes contribute to the development of vascular disease. Excessive levels of blood cholesterol accelerate atherogenesis and lowering high blood cholesterol reduces the incidence of CHD Grundy (1986). One of the risk factors for coronary heart disease is elevated Total Cholesterol (TC), Low Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Lower High Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (HDL-C) (Hu et al., 2001; Schaefer, 2002; Moreno and Mitjavalia, 2003; Jain et al., 2007). In particular, hyperglycemia, the primary clinical manifestation of diabetes, is thought to contribute to diabetic complications by altering vascular cellular metabolism, vascular matrix molecules and circulating lipoproteins (Inoguchi et al., 1994).

The different qualitative chemical tests can be performed for establishing profile of given extract for its chemical composition. The following tests may be performed on extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them.

1.introduction

The total sum of foods or mixture of foods which an individual consumes each day is referred to as his diet (Okey, 1992). Vegetables that are used as food has nourishing substances called nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. The nutritive value of different vegetables varies sufficiently and the usage of variety of vegetables ensures all the necessary nutrients required in the diet and its lack in daily menu may result in various disease and deficiencies (Saxena, 1970).  They contain a great variety of all other phytochemicals, some of which claimed to have antioxidant, antimicrobial and also anti-carcinogenic properties (Grudha et al., 1996). But when soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride, water soluble nutrients may be leached into the water (Srilakshmi, 1999). An attempt was made in the present study to find out the effect of soaking of some selected vegetables in water for one hour after cutting them into pieces and its nutrient loss.

Validation in the pharmaceutical and medical device industry is defined as the documented act ofdemonstrating that a procedure, process, and activity will consistently lead to the expected results. It often includes the qualification of systems and equipment. It is a requirement for Good Manufacturing Practices and other regulatory requirements. Since a wide variety ofprocedures, processes, and activities need to be validated, the field of validation is divided into a number of subsections including the following:

1. Introduction

Several herbs have been used traditionally to prevent and treat human and animal diseases. Recently, scientific evaluation of plants and preparations of plant origin medications have received more attention. Cassia occidentalis had been reported to be used as antidote of poison, blood purifier, expectorant, anti inflammatory agent and a remedy for the treatment of liver diseases (Ghani, 1920, Kabiruddin, 1951). C occidentalis was tested for antifeedant and insecticidal properties. It was studied successfully for its anti-parasitic (Tona et al., 1999), hepatoprotective activity (Jafri et al., 1999). Stimulation of the immune system is highly desirable for the treatment of immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. The  anti-inflammatory and hepato protective effects of C occidentalis may relate to an influence of plant compounds on immunocompetent cells. The present study was undertaken to find out the effect of methanolic extract of C occidentalis leaves on the humoral immune response in rabbits.

Ultrasound is an excellent diagnostic modality for detecting visceral abnormalities. Detection of masses, nodules or effusions through sonography provides non-specific diagnosis. For specific/definite diagnosis tissue samples are necessary for histopathological examination. The techniques of ultrasound guided fine needle aspiration and core biopsy are of great help in establishing etiological diagnosis.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical public health problem globally, which can shake the foundation of modern healthcare. Infections caused by drugresistant organisms could lead to increased mortality and prolonged duration of hospitalization, causing a huge financial burden to the affected persons, healthcare systems and hinder the goals of sustainable development. With rising AMR, antibiotics are increasingly becoming ineffective for treating diseases.The post antibiotic era is not a dreadful imagination but a potential reality unless effective global actions are initiated now (1). AMR is not the only problem of human health, it widely affects the animal husbandry as well as environment. In India in 2019, there were 297,000 deaths attributable to AMR and 1,042,500 deaths associated with AMR. India has the 145th highest age-standardized mortality rate per 100,000 population associated with AMR across 204 countries.The number of AMR deaths in India is higher than deaths from neoplasms, respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enteric infections, diabetes and kidney diseases and maternal and neonatal disorders.Out of 10 million projected human deaths in 2050, one-fifth may be from India (2).Annually, more than 50 000 new-born are estimated to die from sepsis due to pathogens resistant to first-line antibiotics. The median cost of treatment of a resistant bacterial infection in India is estimated to be more than a year’s wages of a rural worker. There are five pathogens to be aware of in India (number of deaths associated with AMR in parenthesis): Escherichia coli (152,700), Klebsiella pneumoniae (123,200), Staphylococcus aureus (111,400), Acinetobacter baumannii (103,500), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (98,600).If there is no timely containment, AMR is likely to cause nearly 10 million deaths by 2050 and resulting in significant economic losses. It would also impact nutrition security, livelihood and hinder the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. In 1928, penicillin was developed and socalled magic drug was subsequently commercialised and used globally. When antibiotic resistance ?rst emerged, novel antibiotics to treat these bacteria were developed. However, it is dif?cult to develop effective new antibiotics every time as it is time consuming and costly and if developed a new resistance mechanism emerges in bacteria. There is a demand for new strategies to treat bacterial infections, such as endophytes therapy, phage therapy, antimicrobial peptides, CRISPER cas and so on.

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

Anthocyanins are members of the flavonoid group of phytochemicals, a group predominant in teas, honey, wines, fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, cocoa and cereals. The primary players in this group include the anthocyanins (eg, cyanidin, pelargonidin, petunidin), flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol), flavones (luteolin, apigenin), flavanones (myricetin, naringin, hesperetin, naringenin), flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin), and although sometimes classified separately, the isoflavones (genistein, daidzein) (Skibola and Smith, 2000).

The pancreas is a thin and elongated ‘V’ shaped organ having two lobes (right and left) and body. It lies in the right cranial quadrant of the abdomen. It is difficult to visualize normal pancreas sonographically because of its echogenicity similar to that of adjacent mesentery and fat.

Imaging of muscles, tendons, joints and bones is not common practice in canine and feline medicine. However, scanning of tendons and ligaments is extensively done in race horses to see their fitness. Adhesions, ruptures/ tears and inflammation of tendons and ligaments can be detected by sonographic imaging of these structures. These structures are relatively superficial so a high frequency linear or curvilinear transducer (7.5 to 13.0 MHz) is used to scan these structures. For scanning of joints acoustic window is relatively small so micro convex or sector probes are more appropriate.

Beside heart, ultrasound of the thorax facilitates the imaging of lungs, pleura, mediastinum, chest wall and diaphragm. Sonographic examination of the heart is discussed in chapter16. Because of nearly total reflection of sound waves at gas interfaces (Fig. 176) thoracic ultrasound has limitations. Pulmonary and mediastinal lesions located deep are difficult to image. Peripheral pulmonary lesions and pleural fluid can be visualized.

Abdominal organs in different species of animals have distinctive features with respect to their shape, size, location and echogenicity and echo texture. This is true for dogs and cats also. Therefore, information with respect to sonographic features of dogs cannot be taken for granted for cats in totality