eChapters

Diagnosis of Poisoning    
Three types of diagnosis
 a) Tentative
 b) Presumptive
 c) Confirmative based on the following conditions
 1. History
 2. Physical examination and clinical evidences    
Hyperthermia- Organochlorine;    
Hypothermia- OP compunds    
Miosis: Opium 
Mydriasis- Belladona    
Dryness of mouth (Xerostomia)- belladona;    
Moist and Hypersalivation- OPC, Carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids 
Bitter Almond    smell-Cyanide
Garlic odor in expired air- Phosphorus, Arsenic    
Mice smell- Hemlock    
Rotten Garlic/Horse raddish smell- Selenium Poisoning

Genotoxicity potential of any environmental pollutants can be investigated using the micronucleus (MN) test. It is among the most sensitive DNA damage indicators and it has been applied to several organisms and tissues for evaluation of environmental contaminants (Lemos et al., 2011). Micronuclei (MN) assay is more rapid and simpler than chromosomal analysis (Gandhi et al., 2003). Compared to the chromosome aberrations, the final result is relatively easily scored and thus requires less time to make an assessment of the clastogenicity of a chemical (Garriott et al. 2002). An in vitro MN assay can detect the clastogens and aneugens as well as mitotic delay, apoptosis, chromosome breakage, chromosome loss and non-disjunction (Corvi et al., 2008). Although, micronuclei constitute well-characterized biomarkers of chromosomal damage (Salazar et al. 2009) but in vitro MN test does not provide information on the origin of micronuclei (Corvi et al., 2008).

Experimental Procedure

Micronuclei assay is carried out in PMNC and splenocytes as per method of Hayashi et al. (1983).

Source

? Consumption of seeds (dog/cat), Baits containing strychinine kept for foxes, rats, mice

? Cattle are more susceptible to strychnine poisoning parenterally than orally because strychnine is destroyed in the rumen

? Ingestion of birds or rats poisoned with strychnine and ingestion of strychnine treated seeds of peanuts, wheat (in human).

? In Seeds, 1.53- 3.24% total alkaloids out of which 50% is strychnine.

? Loganin (glycoside), Vomicine, α-colubrine, betacolubrine, pseudo strychinine (alkaloid), Brucine, strychnine and strychnicine (leaves), Brucine and small amount of strychnine (bark)

? Average amount of strychnine and brucine in nuxvomica seeds is 1.23 and 1.55% respectively.

? Strychnine- an indole alkaloid found in seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica is extremely stable and can be detected in specimens many years even after the death of animals.

? It is rapidly absorbed from the GIT and parentrally significant amount found in liver and kidney while small amount reaches CNS.

? Metabolized by hepatic MFOs and primarily excreted in urine within 10 hrs.

Source

? Consumption of seeds (dog/cat), Baits containing strychinine kept for foxes, rats, mice

? Cattle are more susceptible to strychnine poisoning parenterally than orally because strychnine is destroyed in the rumen

? Ingestion of birds or rats poisoned with strychnine and ingestion of strychnine treated seeds of peanuts, wheat (in human).

? In Seeds, 1.53- 3.24% total alkaloids out of which 50% is strychnine.

? Loganin (glycoside), Vomicine, α-colubrine, betacolubrine, pseudo strychinine (alkaloid), Brucine, strychnine and strychnicine (leaves), Brucine and small amount of strychnine (bark)

? Average amount of strychnine and brucine in nuxvomica seeds is 1.23 and 1.55% respectively.

? Strychnine- an indole alkaloid found in seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica is extremely stable and can be detected in specimens many years even after the death of animals.

? It is rapidly absorbed from the GIT and parentrally significant amount found in liver and kidney while small amount reaches CNS.

? Metabolized by hepatic MFOs and primarily excreted in urine within 10 hrs.

? Oxalic acid is an organic dicarboxylic acid that readily forms insoluble salts with cations like calcium & magnesium.

? Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts are highly soluble and can induce toxicity in animals.

Source

? Ingestion of large quantity of oxalate containing plants.

? For toxicity plant should contain > 10% oxalic acid on dry weight basis.

? The form in which oxalate is present in plant mainly as acid oxalate (Oxalis sp., Rumex sp.) or oxalate ions (chenopodiacae).

Acetylcholinesterase activity in brain is measured by the method described by Ellman’s et al. (1961).

Reagents

1. Phosphate buffer (0.1M) (pH 8.0) Solution A: 5.22 g of K2 HPO4 and 4.68 g of NaH2 PO4 are dissolved in 150 ml of distilled water. Solution B: 6.2 g of NaOH is dissolved in 150 ml of distilled water. Solution B is added to solution A to get desire pH 8.0 and then finally the volume is made up to 300 ml with distilled water.

2. DTNB reagent 39.6 mg of DTNB with 15 mg of NaHCO3 is dissolved in 10 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer.

3. Acetylthiocholine (ATC) 21.67 mg of Acetylthiocholine is dissolved in 1 ml of distilled water.

Procedure

The brain tissue is weighed and 10% homogenate is made in 0.1M Phosphate buffer (pH 8.0). Take 0.4 ml aliquot of homogenate in a cuvette containing 2.6 ml phosphate buffer (0.1M) and 100 µl DTNB. The contents of the cuvette are mixed thoroughly by bubbling air and absorbance is measured at 412 nm in a spectrophotometer. When absorbance reached a stable value, it is recorded as the basal reading .To this 20 µl of acetylthiocholine is added and change in absorbance is recorded for a period of 10 min at intervals of 2 min. Change in the absorbance per minute determined.

LD 50- It is defined as the concentration/dose that kills 50 % of the experimental population.

Acute toxic studies have been conducted in order to calculate LD50. There are several methods to calculate LD50, some are as follows:

Methods to Determine LD 50

• Karber’s method.

• Miller & Tainter method

• Lorke method

• Fixed dose method

• Acute Toxic Class method

• Up & down procedure

Karber’s Method

This method involves the administration of different doses of test substance to various groups, which has five animals each. The first group of animals is administered with the vehicle in which the test substance was dissolved or diluted

This chapter introduces hybridoma technology and its application in producing monoclonal antibodies. It explains the fusion of antibody-producing B lymphocytes with immortal myeloma cells, selection in HAT medium and the roles of HGPRT and polyethylene glycol. The survival and cloning of hybrid cells and the advantages of monoclonal antibodies are considered. The chapter also discusses tissue and organ transplantation, including autografts, isografts, allografts and xenografts. The immunological mechanisms of acute graft rejection, donor histocompatibility antigens and the involvement of T lymphocytes are addressed. These questions connect laboratory antibody production with transplantation immunology and its diagnostic, therapeutic and research applications.

Veterinarians will be often required to mention the specific animal husbandry terms for various purposes like writing certificates for various schemes, postmortem, attending court of law in veterolegal cases etc. Hence this chapter aims in refreshing the vets with the common terms associated with different domestic animals and animal husbandry activities. 

The basic knowledge of normal physiological values in different animal species is essential for selection of the animal, diagnosis of any abnormality if any and its correction. The chapter provides the normal physiological values viz temperature, pulse, respiration etc in different domestic animals.

The different biochemical values serve as an indicator of the correct health status, viz important organ functions,  the alteration in values if any, helps in identifying the specific organ damage and exact diagnosis of the  abnormal health condition or disease. Some of the important biochemical values of the animals, which may assist in diagnosing the specific disease  conditions are listed in this chapter.

The  information on normal reproductive traits in domestic animals like calving interval, age at first calving etc, is essential for getting the maximal reproductive efficiency of the animal by the farmer. It also helps in improving the reproductive efficiency of the animals by different required means viz nutrient/mineral supplementation, antibiotic, hormonal therapy etc.

The table gives the approximate date of parturition, based on the date of breeding/mating in the year as a easy ready reference table.

Plants are used as medicine since time immemorial. One of the area of Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology is considered as the scientific evaluation of traditional medicinal plants (Cotton, 1996). Cox (1994) has suggested that the ethno-directed sampling is most likely to succeed in identifying drugs used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, inflammatory and dermatological complaints. The Plant kingdom is a virtual goldmine of potential drug targets and other active molecules awaiting to be discovered. It has been estimated that only 10 - 15 per cent of the 7,50,000 existing species of higher plants have been surveyed for biologically active compounds.

Phytochemicals from various parts of a plant or tree such as the leaves, the flowers, the seeds, the barks, the roots and the shrubs can be isolated. Once one comes in from collecting plants in the field, it is good idea to freeze them immediately in a freezer at – 20°C or a commercial freezer held at – 80°C (Kaufman et al., 1999). According to Harborne (1984, 1998), fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction.

The publication of “Flora of British India” by Hooker (1872-1897) was followed by a series of regional floras by Cooke (1901-08) for Bombay presidency; Prawn (1903) for Bengal: Duthie (completed by Parker & Turrill, 1905-29) for upper gangetic plains and adjacent Siwalik and of sub Himalayan tracts; Kanjilal (1966) for the forest flora of Uttar Pradesh; Gamble (completed by Fisher, 1915-1936) for Presidency of Madras; Haines (1921-1925) for Bihar and Orissa: and Kanji et al (1934-1940) for Assam. Duthie’s work was completed by Raizada and associates (Raizada, 1954, Raizada et al. 1961; 1983; Raizada & Jain, 1964, 1966). Later, Raizada (1976) brought together all additions made to Duthie Flora. However, the trends of additions has persisted afterwards and is hoped to continue onwards as well. Revision of old floras has become all the more important because the nomenclature of a large number of species has changed in accordance with International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1956, 1961, 1966, 1972, 1978 & 1983).

This chapter introduces the complement system as an important component of innate and adaptive immunity. It explains the classical, alternative and lectin pathways of complement activation and identifies the molecules involved in each pathway. The formation and functions of C3 convertase, C5 convertase and the membrane attack complex are discussed. Questions address complement-mediated cell lysis, inflammation, chemotaxis and opsonization. The roles of C3b, C3a, C4a, C5a, properdin, factor H and other regulatory proteins are also examined. By covering the activation and regulation of complement, the chapter explains how this system enhances antibody activity and helps eliminate invading microorganisms

This chapter explores the four types of hypersensitivity reactions described under the Gell and Coombs classification. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, Type II cytotoxic reactions, Type III immune-complex disease and Type IV delayed hypersensitivity are examined in detail. The roles of IgE, mast cells, basophils, antibodies, complement and T lymphocytes are highlighted. Clinical examples include anaphylaxis, milk allergy, haemolytic disease, transfusion reactions, serum sickness, glomerulonephritis, farmer’s lung and the blue-eye condition associated with canine hepatitis. Diagnostic applications, including the tuberculin and Coombs tests, are also addressed. The chapter explains how exaggerated or inappropriate immune responses can damage tissues and produce disease.

This chapter examines immune-system failure arising from reactions against self-antigens or inadequate immune responses. It introduces immunological tolerance, central and peripheral tolerance, clonal deletion and clonal anergy. Important autoimmune diseases—including myasthenia gravis, Graves’ disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Sjögren’s syndrome—are considered. The chapter also discusses molecular mimicry and the production of autoantibodies. Primary, secondary and severe combined immunodeficiency disorders are differentiated, with examples such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome. Immune-privileged sites and immunological paralysis are also covered. These topics explain the mechanisms that normally prevent self-reactivity and the consequences that arise when immune regulation becomes defective.

ABSTRACT

Solanum trilobatum Linn. (Solanaceae) was investigated for the induction of tumor using a soil borne bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Explants like stem segments and nodes were infected with bacterium. Tumors were induced from nodal explants within 10 days of infection. These explants were then transferred to MS basal medium and their growth was observed to be independent of exogenous supply of phytohormones. The growth rate of transformed callus was 10-fold as compared to control. They are used as a promising source of secondary metabolites of medicinal significance.