eChapters

Abstract

The natural color of foods is due primarily to carotenoids, anthocyanins, betanin and chlorophylls, either as inherent food constituents or as food or feed additives. These compounds have drawn considerable attention in recent years, not because of their coloring properties, but due to their potential health-promoting effects. Their occurrence and levels in foods, along with the factors that influence the composition, have been widely investigated. Processing effects have been actively studied. In spite of the intense search for plant and microbial sources and efforts to increase yield, few natural food color additives have reached the market. Developing new colors for the food industry is challenging, as colorants need to be compatible with a food flavors, safety, and nutritional value, and which ultimately have a minimal impact on the price of the product. In addition, food colorants should preferably be natural rather than synthetic compounds. Micro-organisms already produce industrially useful natural colorants such as carotenoids and anthocyanins. Microbial food colorants can be produced at scale at relatively low costs. This chapter highlights the significance of color in the food industry, why there is a need to shift to natural food colors compared to synthetic ones and how using microbial pigments as food colorants, instead of colors from other natural sources, is a preferable option.

1 Analysis of Cream

 Sample Preparation

Warm the cream sample to 40 - 50oC if the sample is very viscous. Then pour from one vessel to another 3 to 4 times to mix well. Sample should be tested daily and always within three days after collection since enzymatic deterioration of the cream will cause low tests.

1.1 Determination of Fat Content in Cream

 1.1.1 Gerber Method

 Introduction

Sulphuric acid is added to cream in order to dissolve the protein and other solids and create heat which liquefy and de-emulsify the fat. Iso-amyl alcohol is added to aid the separation of fat. Upon centrifugation, fat being lighter will be separated on top of solution in the cream butyrometer.

Enzymes (biological catalyst) can be defined as a substance which initiates or fastens the reaction rate, without being consumed during the reaction. Enzymes function as a catalyst in various biological processes taking place in all life forms. Although enzyme synthesis takes place inside living cells, they can even function as a catalyst in the in vitro processes, which makes it suitable for many industrial applications. For product formation in any chemical reaction, reactants or substrates has to overcome the transition state.

Abstract

In biocatalysis, isolated enzymes, enzyme mixtures, immobilized enzymes or microbes (enzymes that are still present within the living cells) are used to perform chemical transformation of organic compounds into novel compounds. Both in academia and across chemical and pharmaceutical industry, biocatalysts are used as isolated preparations or in whole cell format or as recombinant proteins produced in alternate host cells. Biocatalysts catalyze novel small molecule transformations that are usually difficult or impossible using traditional synthetic organic chemistry. Biocatalysts exhibit high chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity and enantioselectivity towards their substrates. As a result, the use of biocatalysts during chemoenzymatic synthesis minimizes the issues of unwanted side-reactions such as decomposition, isomerization, racemization and rearrangement. The process of biocatalysis has become an important tool in the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and enantiopure compounds. Biocatalysis offers a more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting methods for the production of APIs and advanced pharmaceutical intermediates. Biocatalysts have received tremendous attention in pharmaceutical industry because they typically catalyze reactions under mild conditions, so they do not consume much energy or emit much greenhouse gas. Biocatalysts are currently employed for the development of products in different fields, such as pharmaceuticals or intermediates of their production (e.g., antibiotics, statins, and enantiopure building blocks), fine chemicals (e.g., amino acids and vitamins), and food ingredients (e.g., sweeteners, lipids, and nutraceuticals). However, it would be helpful for the pharmaceutical industry to take advantage of developments in biochemistry, molecular cloning, random and site-directed mutagenesis, advanced tools for enzyme discovery, enzyme-directed evolution, high-throughput laboratory evolution techniques for biocatalyst optimization, immobilization, and fermentation technology to gain access to a new class of biocatalysts (enzymes), cells and other microbes.

Abstract

Fruits like orange (citrus sinensis), mango (mangifera indica), banana (musa paradisiaca), guava (psidium guajava) and pomegranate (punica granatum) contain numerous vitamins, minerals, fibre. These fruits also contain phytochemicals, antioxidant and bioactive compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponin, terpenoids, which enhance the nutritional value and reduce the free radicals and oxidative stress in human body. These fruits also show the anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-obesity, anti- diabetic, anti-proliferative, anti-hypertensive properties and are very effective against the pathogenic bacteria, which causes the harmful disease in human body. The chapter provides the production data of these fruits in different countries, their bioactive compounds and their utilization in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries.

Abstract

Water is very essential nutrient and total of only 3% pure water is present on earth. Some natural, anthropogenic and human activities discharge wastes, containing heavy metals into the different water resources and ultimately destroying the ecosystem. Numbers of methods are used for water purification like conventional (includes physical and chemical) and biological. Conventional methods are expensive, generate large quantities of sludge and inefficient at low concentrations of metal. Biological method includes biosorption and bioaccumulation, are ecofriendly and economic and have advantages over conventional methods. Biosorbent material includes microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial by-products are used to treat heavy metal from liquid samples. Actually these biosorbent have number of functional groups on their surfaces which help in binding of metal from aqueous solution. In this article, biosorption of zinc, arsenic and copper are described through lactic acid bacteria that are not harmful, nonsporulating, fastidious, fermentative and generally regarded as safe. Many of these species are probiotic and producing exopolysaccharides and biofilms. It has great resistance to survive in gut environment and efficiency to biosorb metal from gut. It has some significant characteristics that represent a useful tool for decontamination of food and beverages from heavy metals. Biosorption mechanism and factors behind the process make these strains competent of removing these heavy metals.

Abstract

Starch is an important plant-based product and an abundant biomaterial, used worldwide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including food, health, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application but advancements in technological processing have led to the wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. It can be easily degraded by microorganisms hence is a natural source of bioenergy in the form of bioethanol and biohydrogen as well as in the development of biodegradable packaging materials. Various technological interventions can significantly improve the characteristics of native starch and be tailor-made to the specific needs of the packaging and food industry. Native starch can be treated by various methods to modify its characteristics. Modification improves starch paste clarity, viscosity, syneresis and freeze-thaw stability leading to a wide range of food applications. Esterification lowers gelatinization temperature and retrogradation lowers the tendency to form gel and higher paste clarity which shows applications in refrigerated and frozen foods, as emulsion stabilizers and for encapsulation. Cross-linking increases the stability of granules towards swelling, high temperature, high shear, and acidic conditions. Starch-based nano-composite polymers have their application in coating and packaging of food as well as non food commodities. Techniques involving extrusion, casting, spinning, and nanotechnology can be used in the production of films, foams, and nanocomposite materials. Due to the unique characteristics of resistant starch, it is being used as a valuable supplement in the formulation of drugs, pharmaceuticals, various functional foods and in the microencapsulation of probiotics and bioactive compounds.

Abstract

Dietary fibre concentrates (DFC) are the major component of fruit by-products generated during the processing at commercial level. These are the blessings for human gut health along with many other positive health benefits. Fruit by-products are the so-called nuisance for the environment that enfolds numerous positive signs inside. Lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, waxes, mucilage’s, oligosaccharide, gums and many other associated compounds are the part of DFCs. These DFCs when taken in the form of functional ingredient reaches to the colonic microbiota and consequently provides them a healthy growth medium that promotes the cell metabolism upto 67%, enhances the growth of good gut bacteria like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. This article enlightens the content of DFCs in various fruit by-products that shows their prebiotic potential.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most effective methods for determining the functional groups and potential molecular interactions between membrane chemical molecules. Understanding of (infrared) IR absorption band placements in the spectrum as wave numbers can be used to identify the various chemical constituents (such as aromatic amides) that may not be visible by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Abstract

Enzyme is a highly efficient catalyst that is produced by active cells. When compared to chemical catalysts; enzymes have a number of benefits, including high specificity, high catalytic efficiency and flexible activity, all of which greatly help to promote their use in the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food sectors. The majority of enzymes such as protease, amylase, lipase and cellulase are relatively unstable and industrial uses are frequently restricted by a lack of long-term operational stability as well as the technically challenging recovery process and ruse of the enzyme. Enzyme immobilization provides an excellent base for increasing enzyme availability to the substrate with higher turnover over a long period of time. Enzyme immobilization are done by several methods and their performance are influenced by many factors. Physical and chemical based immobilization are the most commonly used methods. The matrix immobilizes the enzyme by holding it permanently or temporarily for a short stretch of time. The generally used matrixes for immobilizations includes natural, synthetic polymers and inorganic compounds.Currently, synergistic interactions of biotechnology and nanotechnology are useful for the development of immobilized enzymes. Enzyme immobilization is a commonly used technology in a variety of industries including food, pharmaceuticals, bioremediation, detergents, and textiles due to technical and economical advantages. This chapter focuses on most commonly used immobilized techniques in industry with many recent applications of immobilized enzymes.

Abstract

The waste utilization as derivative from different food processing sector has been emerged as the main challengeable problem around the world due to the generation of by-products at large quantities consisting seeds, peels, rags, unused flesh, bran, husk, germ, stalk etc. during various processing chain steps. Though these food by-products are potentially rich source of natural compounds which finds its wide utilization in different industries as affordable, cost-effective, novel ingredient comprising dietary fiber, phytochemicals, antioxidants, pectin, enzymes, organic acids, food additives, essential oils etc. subsequently after extractions, purified fractionation and fermentations methods. These food byproducts also have pharmaceutical and nutraceutical activity. A nutraceutical is like a medicine or food grade product, which not only provides physical benefits and nutritional supplements but also protects against various chronic diseases. This food processing waste utilization should be a topic of interest, by means of two ways, i.e., through waste quantity reduction and increased value-added food products production and also as renewable energy source. The purpose of this study is to highlight the opportunities to utilize food by-products from various food processing industries and to encourage the vital exploitation of the by-products containing large number of bio-active compounds having nutraceutical potential.

Abstract

Bioprocessing is much greener than chemical methods, since biocatalysts (enzymes or cells) involved are extremely selective, producing higher product yield with less or no by products, which are basically difficult to separate. Biotechnology can offer both economic and environmental benefits to the chemical industry and thus has great potential to achieve the sustainable production of existing and new products from renewable feedstocks. Fuel and energy production from biomass are major market sector for bioprocessing. They are considered in the manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals, food, food additives, chemicals, and several other products. Generally, a bioprocess involves feedstock pretreatment, fermentation or biocatalysis, and downstream processing for obtaining product and its purification. It is explored for the production of xylitol, fatty alcohol, butanol and biorefinery. Deep understanding of the process is required to create robust control strategy. Based on the requirements, sophisticated instrumentation and complex control laws or simple control law having intricate monitoring system can be selected. Supercritical fluids (SCFs) are advantageous for bioprocessing due to its transport properties, high diffusivity and low viscosity facilitate mass transfer phenomena, variation of pressure and/or temperature are adjusted providing high flexibility in the extraction of metabolites from cells. Microfluidic devices in which small amounts of fluids (10^-9 and 10^-18) are manipulated have emerged for high throughput applications. Automation of the optimization processes is enabled through microtiter plates with simplicity and operate with very small volumes. Therefore, more research is necessary to develop integrated processes that will allow combining one or more techniques to enhance bioprocessing at lower costs.

Abstract

Fermentation technology holds immense promise in diverse fields. It offers opportunities for sustainable biofuel production, allowing us to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and promote a greener energy sector. In the pharmaceutical industry, fermentation plays a vital role in manufacturing antibiotics, enzymes, vaccines, and therapeutic proteins, paving the way for more efficient and cost-effective production processes. Furthermore, fermentation can be harnessed for waste management and environmental remediation, enabling the transformation of organic waste into valuable biogas. With ongoing advancements, fermentation technology continues to open new avenues for innovation and contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future. The present chapter compares types of fermentation process as well as gives an insight into various industrial prospects of fermentation technology.

Abstract

Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms; yeasts or bacteria under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually defines the desirable action of microorganism to enhance food safety by inhibition of pathogens, modify their sensory properties, improve their nutritional value by removing anti-nutritive compounds and by enhancing bioavailability of components. Pulses and Legumes are the major source of dietary nutrients all over the world. Fermentation can be the most simple and economical way of improving their nutritional value, sensory properties and functional qualities. Pulses and legume based fermented food products offer opportunities to include probiotics, prebiotics and fibers in the human diet. In the Indian subcontinent, making use of fermented food and beverages using local food crops and other biological resources is very common, although the nature of the products and the base material varies in different regions. This chapter focuses on some of the indigenous fermented foods produced in the country that have not received the scientific attention they deserve in the last decades. Products produced from different pulses and legumes substrates fermented by lactic acid bacteria, yeast and/or fungi are included.

Quality assurance is fundamental to producing safe, consistent, legally compliant, and commercially successful ice cream. This chapter presents a comprehensive QA framework covering supplier approval, incoming-material inspection, process monitoring, laboratory testing, microbiological control, sanitation, finished-product release, traceability, market quality, and corrective and preventive action. It explains the relationship between quality assurance, quality control, food safety, documentation, and management systems such as HACCP and ISO-based frameworks. The chapter also examines QA department structures, monthly reviews, audits, digitalization, quality culture, and performance indicators. By integrating prevention with measurement and accountability, the chapter demonstrates how effective QA can protect consumers, reduce losses, improve consistency, and strengthen profitability.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which plays a major role in various disciplines including drug discovery, pharmacogenomics, proteomics, comparative genomics, microbial genome applications in biotechnology. Food plays a vital role in various processes in body and also helps in controlling various chronic diseases. Food safety and food processing are very crucial factor for human lives. Bioinformatics has been successfully applied in food industry for improving various factors of food such as flavor, taste, allergenicity, probiotics, optimizing the quantitative and compositional parameters for food processing and assessing the food safety. In this chapter, we have given an overview about the role of bioinformatics in food industry.

This chapter introduces approaches for converting egg-processing residues and by-products into useful materials and products. It examines eggshell composition and applications, eggshell membrane and its biomedical and industrial potential, utilization of surplus and inedible egg material, and extraction of high-value components such as lysozyme and IgY. Waste management, sustainability and circular-economy approaches are also discussed. The chapter emphasizes that successful by-product utilization depends not only on technical feasibility but also on economics, scale, infrastructure, biosecurity and appropriate markets.

Electricity is one of the fundamental phenomena of nature. Electricity or electric current is caused due to the movement of charged particles i.e., electrons. Due to the potential difference between two points in a conductor, electron movement takes place. The potential difference between two points is caused due to the difference in charge density. Electron tends to flow from lower potential to higher potential which causes electricity to flow. In general, the electrons flow from cathode (negative) to anode (positive) but in a wire electricity, electrons flow from anode to cathode when connected to a battery or any electricity source.

It appears that cattle were domesticated prior to 4000b)c)From 1961 to 2021, the amount of milk produced worldwide has almost tripled, reaching 918 million tonnes. Production of milk is carried out by about 150 million households worldwide. Smallholders produce the majority of the milk in developing nations, and milk production supports nutrition, food security, and household livelihoods. For small-scale farmers, milk offers comparatively quick returns and is a significant source of revenue. Small-scale farmers using native or local cattle breeds produce the majority of the milk in developing nations; however, to meet the growing demand for milk and milk products in peri-urban areas, more improved or cross-bred cattle are being used) India is an agricultural country that contributes significantly to the economy. Animal husbandry is an adjunct to agriculture and has vital livestock resources, with cattle and buffalo playing an important role in improving the socio-economic status through contributions to milk, meat, hides, and draft power for agricultural operations. India is one of the world’s top milk producers contributing 24 percent of global milk production and having a large number of indigenous

Abstract

This chapter presents the principle of fluidisation and its use in drying of food materials. Being a convective drying process, capacity and kinetics are limited by process conditions and material properties. The influences are discussed as well as presenting the main equations that describe drying in fluidised beds. The main focus lies on hot gas drying, additionally superheated steam drying as well as atmospheric fluidised bed freeze drying and microwave-assisted fluidised bed drying are presented and discussed.

Abstract

Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi, a group of organism that is different from fruits and vegetables. They are a rich source of good quality protein having more essential amino acids and vitamins with low calories. There are about six commonly known edible mushrooms throughout the world with button mushroom (Agaricus bisporous) being the most familiar and commercially important variety. Mushroom is a highly perishable product with a shelf life limiting to a few days. Soon after harvest, it starts to undergo physiological disorders like shriveling, wilting, liquefaction, browning, textural as well as weight losses and flavour changes. The main responsible factors for the quality deterioration after harvest are respiration rate, browning, bacterial spoilage of mushrooms, temperature and relative humidity. Because of its limited shelf life under ambient conditions of temperature and humidity, the preservation of mushrooms is a matter of concern. Various techniques have been involved in the extension of shelf life of mushrooms including chemical treatments, cooling, modified and controlled atmospheric storage, radiation, drying etc. Drying is one of the most accepted and effective methods for the long term storage of mushrooms. Mushrooms preserved by drying have a pleasant flavour and are used as an important ingredient in several food formulations including salads, instant soups, meats and rice dishes. Various drying processes like sun drying, hot air drying, freeze drying, vacuum drying etc. can be used for the long term storage of mushrooms. As mushrooms are sensitive to temperature, determining the right drying method is the key for the successful and effective operation of the system. The different operating conditions involved in various methods of drying affect product quality considerably. The effect of drying methods on the process and the quality of the dried mushroom is explained in detail in this chapter.

Abstract

Vitamin C is one of the most important phytochemicals and can be found in almost all fruits and vegetables. Since it covers almost all eventualities, being water solute and prone to leaching from cells, thermally labile (one of the most labile vitamins), pH-, metal ion-, light-sensitive, as well as readily oxidizable by ascorbic acid oxidase, vitamin C is selected as the most frequently measured nutrient to evaluate the nutrients loss during thermal processing. It is generally accepted that if vitamin C is well preserved, the other nutrients are also well retained. Higher retention of vitamin C in processed products is highly desired. Herein this chapter reviews the degradation mechanism and kinetics of vitamin C of fruits and vegetables during thermal processing, such as blanching, drying, cooking and frying. It starts with an overview of the functions of vitamin C in human’s health. Then the current status for understanding of the degradation kinetics of vitamin C during thermal processing was outlined, followed by the discussion of its degradation mechanism. At last, potential strategies or alternatives to keep vitamin C are identified and discussed.

A. In vitro Rumen Fermentation Technique for Forage Quality Evaluation

The term in vitro means “in a glass” in contrast to in vivo which is defined as “within the living body”. In vitro implies a close relationship to an in vivo measurement an in vitro reaction is used as a substitute for a reaction which normally occurs and is observed within a living body. the terms  “artificial rumen” and “in vitro rumen fermentation” are often used interchangeably.

The main advantage of the in vitro techniques rests in the ability to use them to study activity of micro-organisms away form the control and influence imposed by the host animal.

Mammals are homeothermic, meaning that they have the ability to control their body temperature within a narrow range in an environment whose temperature may change over a wide range.

India is experiencing a phenomenal spurt in the growth of livestock and poultry sectors through various timely and quality measures scientifically over a few decades. Milk production rose by a large leap from about 17.0 million tones in 1950 to about nearly 100 million tones in 2005 standing first in the world for maximum quantum of milk production. From about a ‘naught’ during 1950, the commercial layers have increased to 220 millions in 2005 producing 4500 crores of eggs every yearranking 5th in the world. The meat production is absolutely fascinating with 20 million birds in 1960 to about 2100 million in 2005 (Table 10.1).

Increase in ambient temperature, drought, rainfall, desert, feed and fodder scarcity, water scarcity and other climatic stresses are very common to tropical climatic conditions. The animals living in tropical climate have to undergo some modification for their survival under such extreme conditions. Interestingly, higher percentage of livestock is found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. These areas are rich in animal resources. There are several descriptive and non-descriptive breeds of bovine distributed in different agro-climatic conditions of India. They possess several traits which make them adaptive to such climatic conditions. Identifying those traits and propagation of such traits is beneficial in near future in respect of climate change scenario. Climate change is the major concern for the improvement and sustainability of livestock under tropical climatic conditions. The rising of temperature and humidity is one of the major threats to animal’s productive performance that leads to great economic losses. Upadhyay et al. (2009) estimated 2% loss of milk production due to thermal stress in India. It has also been expected that 3.2 million tons reduction by 2020 and more than 15 million tons by 2050. The decline in milk production reported to be higher in crossbreds (0.63%) followed by buffaloes (0.5%) and indigenous cattle (0.4%) (Upadhyay et al., 2009). 

The climatic changes and global warming may impact the economic viability of livestock production systems in a significant manner. The possible consequences of increased ambient temperature on the livestock include reduced feed intake, reduced weight gains, lower milk production and lower conception rates during summer periods. Though animals can, to some extent, adapt to higher temperatures with prolonged exposure, the production losses are likely to be exhibited in response to higher temperature events. However, potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not yet been thoroughly explored. Changes in availability and quality of fodder have also been identified as one of the major impacts of climate changes leading to lowered productivity of livestock species. Climate change could also affect the distribution of vector-borne livestock diseases. These changes occur as a result of shifts in the geographical ranges of ticks, mosquitoes, flies and other vectors.

The greenhouse effect is thought to be due to the absorption of solar infrared (IR) radiation by gases and the earth’s surfaces, which, as a result, is heated and then reemit IR radiation at low frequency with a high absorptive power. In fact greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are essential for maintaining life on earth, as without them the planet would be permanently frozen because all of the incoming heat from the sun would be radiated back into space by the earth’s surface (Moss, 1993). The threshold concentration of these gases at which their greenhouse effect would be minimized is not known, but it is accepted that their concentrations in the atmosphere should not be allowed to continue to rise. In recent years, there has been an increase in public concern over environmental damage originating from animal feeding operations.

Recent increase in extreme climate events threatens disruptive impacts on both animal and agriculture (Battisti and Naylor, 2009). Climate change is a global phenomenon, but its negative impacts are more severely felt by the poor people in developing countries. Moreover, rural poor communities rely greatly for their survival on animal and agriculture which belong to the most climate-sensitive economic sectors. Climate change is expected to intensify existing problems and create new combinations of risks. The incidences of droughts, snow-storms and blizzard like events have increased rapidly. The situation has further worsened due to factors such as widespread poverty, over dependence on rain-fed agriculture, inequitable land distribution, limited access to capital and technology, inadequate infrastructure, long term weather forecasts and inadequate research and extension. The impact of climate change is expected to heighten the vulnerability of animal systems and reinforce existing factors that are affecting animal production systems in many parts of the world.

Climate change has become a global threat as its impact is evident on the Earth. In the coming decades,the severity of climate change is expected to aggravate the ecosystem. Due to its vulnerable ecosystem and geographical location, the North eastern region (NER)of India that is home to about 40 million people is considered as one of the most climate sensitive areas in the country. The NER is among India’s least developed region andscarce information is available on the impact of climate change in this region. However, initial scientific research and field observations confirm that the region is suffering from the impacts of climate change already. The region comprising 0.26 million km2area occupying 8% of nation’s territoryconsists of the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. These states consist of a part of the east Himalayan region, which extends eastwards from Arunachal Pradesh to the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal. The entire region is a part of Indo-Burma and Himalayan hotspots i.e. characterized by rich biodiversity, heavy precipitation and high seismicity.

Global warming is the biggest long term threat to life on earth. Rise in temperature may drive thousands of species to extinction, trigger more frequent floods and droughts and sink low lying islands and coastal areas by rising sea levels. It is the result of rising atmospheric content of CO₂ mainly owing to burning of hydrocarbons or fossil fuels like as petrol and diesel. Destruction of forests and their degradation too contribute to rise in carbon dioxide levels. The IPCC (2006) projected the rate of warming for the 21st century to be between 0.8 and 4.4^ºC at various stabilized CO₂ levels in atmosphere and it is most likely to be 3°C by the end of this century. It could cost global economy almost $7 trillion by 2050, is equivalent to a 20% fall in growth if no action is taken on greenhouse gas emissions. If action is taken, it will cost only $350 billion due to climate change already taken place, just 1% of the global GDP. The winter 2007 was the warmest and recorded 0.85^ºC above average of 12oC and the previous highest was 0.71^ºC, which occurred in 2002 in Northern Hemisphere. The entire Europe Union recorded the warm winter, having more than 2^ºC above average. New York experienced the highest temperature of 21.7^ºC on a day in January, 2007 and the second highest was recorded as 17.2^ºC in 1950. The year 2007 was the warmest winter in the NHS. However, floods and excess rains were also noticed due to hurricanes and tropical storms worldwide in 2007. The year 2010 was the warmest year in India, followed by 2009. It was the second warmest year globally after 1998. It was also one of the wettest years globally in recent years and it was a landmark in annals of climatology.

Livestock farming is an integral part of crop farming and contributes substantially to household nutritional security and poverty alleviation through increased household income. Indian agriculture is an economic symbiosis of crop and livestock production with cattle as the foundation. Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by products from crops which otherwise would be wasted. Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income, drought power and manure. Livestock provides for human needs by way of food, fibre, fuel, fertilizer, skin and traction. India has the largest livestock populations in the world. It has 57 per cent of the world’s buffalo population and 16 per cent of the cattle population. It ranks first in respect of cattle and buffalo population, third in sheep and second in goat population in the world. 70 per cent of the livestock are owned by 67 per cent of small and marginal farmers. 76 per cent of the milk is produced by weaker sections of society. Out of total livestock in the country, 37.28 per cent are cattle, 21.29 per cent are buffaloes, 12.71 per cent are sheep, 2640 per cent are goats and only 2.01 per cent are pigs. All other animals are less than 0.37 per cent of the total livestock. The species-wise breakup of livestock population in India (Table 16.1)

Livestock have the potential to be transformative; by enhancing food and nutrition security and providing the income to pay for education and for other needs, livestock can transform lives of many (Jimmy Smith et al., 2013). The projected growth of population is 9.6 billion in the year 2050 from the current population of 7.2billion (Gerber et al, FAO, 2013). The world demand for milk and meat in 2050 is expected to expand 58 and 73% respectively from their demand levels in 2010 (FAO, 2011). Nevertheless, the growth animal agriculture is not on par with the demand. Today, in a world of limited resources, in the face of climate change and a rising world population, a major issue is global food security (Augustine et al 2013). The key inferences of the latest approved summary for policymakers by the IPCC (2013) on climate change are 1). Warming of climate system is unequivocal and will continue beyond 2100. Global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century is expected to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850 to 1900 for almost all RCP scenarios 2). It is very likely that frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation events have increased 3).

In India, being predominantly an agricultural country, livestock is emerging as a driving force in the growth of agricultural sector. Contribution of livestock to agriculture GDP has been rising steadily during the last three decades from 13.88% in 1980-81 to 27.28% in 2010-11 (BAHS 2012). About 70% population of the Country is engaged in agriculture and more than 50% of people below poverty line are associated with livestock production. India is blessed with a rich genetic resource of bovines, with an estimated number of 304.76 million (Livestock Census, 2007), which is 19% of the world. India continues to be the highest milk producing country in the world with an estimated production of 121.8 million tonnes during 2010-11 of which more than 53% is contributed by buffaloes (105.34 millions). Similarly, India ranks first in buffalo, second in cattle and goat, third in sheep, fourth in duck, fifth in chicken and sixth in camel population of the world. India is the third largest egg producer in the world (BAHS 2012). India posses a large treasure of domestic animal biodiversity with 37 breeds of cattle, 13 breeds of buffalo, 23 breeds of goat, 39 breeds of sheep, 6 breeds of horse/pony, 8 breeds of camel, 2 breeds of pig and 15 breeds of chicken registered under National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal.

The annual milk production in Tamil Nadu during 2009-10 from crossbred cows, non-descript cows and buffaloes were 42.28,7.89 and 7.61 lakh tones, respectively. Tamil Nadu had 59.83 lakhs crossbred female cows in the year 2007 as against 41.47 lakhs in 2003 with an annual growth rate of 9.59 per cent (Anon, 2010). With the increasing crossbred cattle population and average annual production, better management of the high producers becomes a necessity. Production and health of animals depend mostly on environment in which they live. A satisfactory environment for any farm livestock is the one that ensures not only optimal productivity but also meets the health and behavioral needs of the animals. A satisfactory environment is the one that satisfies the following four criteria: thermal comfort, physical comfort, disease control and behavioral satisfaction. The most important environmental interventions done in recent days are those that have been done in housing and other attempts to ameliorate the thermal environment. The effort of the body to maintain a stable internal environment to challenges from widely variable environments was first described by Claude Bernard (1878) and later referred to as homeostasis (Cannon, 1932). An environment in which stressors are minimized would likely be favorable for efficient production of products derived from domestic farm animals and for helping ensure the well-being of those species.

The demand for agricultural and livestock products is rising and the challenge to feed 8 billion people in 2020 is considerably enormous. Further, it is also hard to imagine meeting 2050-projected demand by raising twice as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources (Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003). The food systems encompass activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food security (Fig. 14.1).The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical and human environments influence both the activities and the outcomes.

“Terra”per se is an extraordinarily complex, messy geophysical system with dozens of variables, most of which change in response to one another. The basic proposition behind the science of climate change is also rooted in the floral and faunal cohabiting with the Homo sapiens. Livestock and related fodder cultivation and the green waste generated in a farming enterprise are of extreme significance when we ponder over the climate change. Confusion and complacency reigns the thinking process and planning process related to climate change. Confusion in the sense, that risk communication in this regard is so placid. Complacency, we say due to the lackadaisical attitude of our policy makers. To make it very plain, fodder production sector as well as farm sector will suffer the most in Kerala for want of scientific thinking, planning and execution.

Heat stress induced by climate change is a serious issue of livestock industries worldwide (Bajagai, 2011). When environmental temperatures move out of the thermo-neutral zone (or comfort zone) animals begins to experience either heat stress or cold stress. Both these stresses require the animals to increase the amount of energy used to maintain the body temperature so that less energy is available for productive processes. Atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, air movement and solar radiation are the major factors that determine the heat load on animal. Thermoregulation is the ability of the animals to maintain their body temperature in cold or hot environments. It consists of behavioural, physiological and anatomical responses that affect energy metabolism. At lower temperature as a physiological adjustment to maintain the body temperature the animal increases the metabolic heat production by increasing the basal metabolic rate and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. Hence the maintenance energy requirement of animals increases in a cold environment, which reduces the amount of energy available for production. From a practical point of view higher temperatures are much more dangerous for producing animals than a cold environment. Temperatures exceeding the higher critical level compromise animal performance not only by changing the energy and nutrient metabolism, but also by upsetting the body homeostasis, with detrimental consequences both for immune competence and for product quality. In general, livestock with high production potential are at greatest risk of heat stress, and require most attention.

The arid and semi-arid regions of India are drought prone and the availability vegetation of these regions is more acute during summer when the quality of the pastures becomes vulnerable. Small ruminants in the semi-arid regions need to adopt special physiological function to maintain thermal equilibrium. The reproductive efficiency of different breeds of sheep inhabiting in the semi-arid regions of India is relatively low (Arora and Garg, 1998).The nature of nutritional resources and management problems differs with climate, soil and vegetation, the physical process which governs the animals reproductive performance are the same; the female must reach puberty, show behavioral estrus and shed one or more ova which have then to be fertilized. Dietary nutrition promotes the programming and expression of the metabolic pathways that enable animals to achieve their genetic potential for reproduction. Nutrition has an important impact on the reproductive performance in sheep, but the magnitude of the effect on reproduction may vary with the season (White et al., 1983). Sheep are more prone to neglect compared to cattle and often suffer from lack of feed and fodder. The animals during the grazing are exposed to combined stress (Sejian et al., 2010 ab, and 2011) .This leads to decrease in body weight and loss of reproductive functions. Concurrently, Rhind and Mc Neilly (1986) showed that ewes with low body fat reserves had fewer large ovarian follicles and therefore the potential for subsequent maturation and ovulation declined. 

Increasing evidence over the past few decades indicate that significant changes in climate are taking place worldwide as a result of enhanced human activities. The inventions that were discovered during last few centuries, more so in the last century has altered the concentration of atmospheric constituents that lead to global warming. The major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxides (NO₂), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural related practices. The temperature increase is widespread over the globe and is greater at higher northern latitudes. Land regions have warmed faster than the oceans. January 2000 to December 2009 was the warmest decade on recordreported by NASA. These activities accelerated the processes of climate change and increased the average global temperatures by about 0.8°C (1.5°F) since 1880 (NASA,2010). Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets. Satellite data since 1978 show that annual average Arctic sea ice extent has shrunk by 2.7 % [2.1 to 3.3%] per decade, with larger decreases in summer of 7.4% [5.0 to 9.8%] per decade. Mountain glaciers and snow cover on average have declined in both hemispheres. It has also induced increased climatic variability and occurrence of extreme weather events in many parts of the world.

Yak (Poephagus grunniens)is the most remarkable and multipurpose domestic animal living at high altitudes of the Himalayas. Features common to the environment in which yak live are extreme cold, mountainous terrain, high altitudes with reduced oxygen in the air, high solar radiation and short growing seasons for herbageanda variable assortment of herbage, sparse insome areas. Generally, the yak habitat ranges from 3000-6000 m abovemean sea level (msl), where the alpine pastures are found and there is no absolutely frost-free period during any part of the year. Wilted herbage provides some sustenance for the yak at other times of year, but not insufficient quantity for their requirements (Fig. 9.1). Many of thecharacteristics of the yak can be regarded as adaptations to these conditions, in which cattle of other species have difficulty in surviving (Wiener et al., 2003).The yaks are considered as the life line of the highlanders in remote terrain because yak is the only sustainable livelihood due to non-availability of arable land for major agriculture. Yak husbandry is one of the important and indispensable aspects of the Indianstates, namely, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim and Garhwal hills of Uttarakhand where other livestock species can hardly live but yaks can survive, reproduce and produce milk, meat, wool and other by-products.

Over the past decades climate change and climate related disaster risks have become more important than ever. The effects of climate change are unprecedented today and thus pose serious risks for human wellbeing, livelihoods and life-supporting systems. They also present serious challenges to society, in addition, increased climate variability significantly undermine the socio-economic development and environment. The consequences of climatic change, such as increase in frequency and extent of droughts, floods, cyclones, mudslides and avalanches have impacts on all sectors of economy including water, agriculture, fisheries, health, forestry, transport, tourism and energy sectors. Amongst these sectors, the agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable sectors to impacts of climate change, which can have multiplicative effects on other sectors, as well as the economy and overall human being. The projected climate change towards warming may affect not only the crop cultivation but also on agro-climatic conditions for growing pasture vegetation, forming of feed stocks in pastures and conditions for grazing livestock. Favourable conditions for grazing livestock are determined, on the one hand, by sufficient amount of forage in pastures and on the other, by the extreme weather conditions that restrict the use of these fodders.

Climate change is one of the most serious and long standing challenges facing livestock around the world and has moved up to the top of agenda among scientific community, civil society, business and government. Majority of scientific experts around the world believe that the climate change is already occurring by human activities, by use of fossil fuel, deforestation and agricultural practices, livestock rearing and that the developing countries in particular would be more vulnerable to the continuously changing climate. Rise in temperature due to climate change is likely to affect livestock production and health. Large deltas and low lying coastal areas would be inundated by a rise in sea level along with increased precipitation intensity. (DFID, 2004).Major contributors to the climate change are the man-made greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide and hydroflurocarbons in the atmosphere. The accumulation of gas is causing the climatic change globally, as evident from the increased frequency of floods, droughts, cyclones and torrential rains in the recent past. The green house gases (GHGs) emission from agriculture sector alone accounts for 25.5% of global emission and over 60% from anthropogenic sources (FAO,2009)

Heat or thermal stress occurs when it becomes increasingly difficult for dairy cow to maintain a normal core body temperature of 101.5 to 102.8° F (rectal temp.). The thermo neutral or comfort zone (TNZ) for cow is at an environmental temperature of 41 to 77° F. Within the TNZ, heat production from normal metabolic functions is about equal to the heat loss from the body and maintaining a normal body temperature is relatively easy. Extent of heat stress can be measured by the Temperature Humidity Index (THI). A THI level above 75 is considered stressful for dairy animals. Two sources of heat impact the cow as the environmental temperature and the heat produced internally from basal nutrient metabolism. Heat produced from nutrient metabolism is a lesser factor than environmental heat sources. However, as milk production and feed intake increase, more heat from nutrient metabolism is produced aggravating any heat stress being incurred from environmental sources. Therefore, higher milk producing cow will be more affected by heat stress than low milk producing or dry cow. 

One Health is defined as “the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment.” The concept of ‘One Health’ dates back to the Greek physician Hippocrates (ca. 460 BCE–a.370) who in his text “On Airs, Waters and Places” stated:

Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces, for they are not all alike, but differ much from themselves in regard to their changes.

The Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), after analysis of more than 6000 peer reviewed publications has assessed potential effects of changing climate on various spheres of life (Solomon et al., 2007). Under different scenarios, the estimated temperature rise of 1.1 to 6.4 °C in the global surface temperature is predicted at the end of 21st century (period 2090-2099 relative to 1980-1999). Global average sea level in the last interglacial period (about 125,000 years ago) was likely 4 to 6 m higher than during the 20th century, mainly due to the melting of ice in the polar regions. It has been detected in changes of surface and atmospheric temperatures in the upper several hundred metres of the ocean, and in contributions to sea level rise (Solomon et al., 2007). The change in climate is concurrent with the changes in global levels of carbondioxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen etc, loss of biodiversity, natural habitat and other natural resources. The IPCC report also estimates a confidence level of 90% that there will be more frequent warm spells, heat waves and heavy rainfall and a confidence level of 66% that there will be an increase in drought, tropical cyclones and extreme high tides. The magnitude of the events will vary depending on the geographic zones of the World (Solomon et al., 2007).

2.1 Manufacturing Process of Sugar

There are a number of steps in producing raw sugar from cane

1. Sugarcane receiving and unloading (receive the cane at the factory and unload it from the transport vehicles)
2. Sugarcane preparation (cutting and shredding cane to prepare it for juice extraction)
3. Extraction of Sugarcane Juice (two technologies are in common use; milling or diffusion)
4. Juice clarification (remove suspended solids from

The camel is an important animal component of the fragile desert eco-system. With its unique bio-physiological characteristics, the camel has become an icon of adaptation to challenging ways of living in arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught power in desert but the utilities are many and are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. The world famous Ganga-Risala of erstwhile Bikaner State was accepted as Imperial Service Troup and participated in World War I and II.

1. Introduction

The materials widely used for food contact applications include paper and coated-paper products, cellulose products, cellophane, metals, ceramics, glass, rubber, plastics, and miscellaneous materials such as wood, fabric, etc. Most of these materials have been in vogue for several years. Among them plastics are widely used in the food industry as they offer many advantages due to their high cost-to-benefit ratio. However, food safety issues in terms of migration of additives is a cause of concern. Plastics contain a number of additives either deliberately added during their manufacture or inevitable due to technical requirement.

Introduction

The Himalayan Moutains that is relatively a younger formation and geologically a very complex occupies most of the Arunachal Pradesh. The mountain terrain covers an area of about 86000 sq. km with elevation ranging from 400 to 6000 m above mean sea level (Satapathy and Dutta 1999). The wet tropical and sub-tropical climate which prevails in most part of the Arunachal Pradesh, there is usual phenomenon of erosion and land degradation by the action of water. It is estimated by the application of USLE for Arunachal Pradesh that the total amount of about 669.35 million tones of soil is eroded annually with an average rate of 90.7 tonnes /ha/year (Singh, 1999).

Arunachal Pradesh falls under upper Brahamaputra river system constituted by 10 major river basins. They are Tawang, Kameng, Dikrong, Subansiri, Siang, Sesseri, Dibang-Tellu, and Tirap-Tiso. In Arunachal Pradesh, Dikrong river is named after joining of two main rivers Pachin and Para . In the catchments of Dikrong river light textured unstable soils with the prevalent practice of Jhum Cultivation makes the entire catchments susceptible to erosion. In every monsoon the river Dilrong carries tremendous amount of silt, gravel, small boulder and causes flood in some parts of the catchments susceptible to erosion. Singh (1999) observed that loss rate through Dikrong River was 100.98 tones/ha/year. This indicates serious threat to soil resources and there is need for urgent treatment for sediment control in Dikrong river bash.