eChapters

Introduction
 
Dairy ingredients are of significant importance in the formulation of many food products. Additionally, the incorporation of dairy ingredients, comprehensively recognized by the consumer as “natural” intensifies the odds of success of packaged foods and adds functional properties of the dairy ingredients in the targeted product. Dairy ingredients can be extracted from fluid milk in the form of cream, butter, condensed milk, dry milk, cheese, and whey products [1]. They provide beneficial functionality to foods, such as delivery of key nutrients, water management, fat-holding capacity, emulsification capability, viscosity creation, gel formation, and foam generation apart from providing desirable attributes of texture and flavour. Various ingredients and claims associated with dairy foods are shown in Table 3.1.

Milk is nutritious and essential food for human beings and also serve as good medium for microbial growth and contamination. Milk is a single, most nearly complete, natural food. Primarily it is meant for nourishing the newborns but man has exploited it for human consumption since long. Today milk has become indispensable integral component of our diet. About half the milk produced is consumed as fresh milk, the rest going into a variety of products including evaporated and condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter, cheese, malted milk, ice cream, yoghurt, lactose and casein. Milk is very important from a nutritional standpoint since it contained all the essential food constituents (carbohydrate-lactose, protein-casein, fat-butter, minerals- calcium, potassium and vitamins- A, B, C, D, E, and K) required in human diet in about the proper proportions. India is the second largest producer of milk in the world. India has exhibited unprecedented rate of growth in dairy development in last 30 years mainly due to sustained efforts of dairy technologists in Operation flood Programme introduced by the National Dairy Development Board. Dairy microbiology deals with aspects like shelf life and spoilage microbes, public health significance and food borne pathogens, and production of fermented dairy products.

DAIRY BUSINESS

Most ambitious young men at some time or another are likely to develop an interest in going into business for themselves. This is prompted not only by the thought that a person owning his own business is more independent but also by the hope of increasing personal income. However, when these same young men look about them and see the general existence of “big business” in practically all lines of endeavour, they often lose courage and decide to remain as workers with some company where they can enjoy a certain degree of security. 
The general condition is an important factor in determining the success of new business enterprises. Similarly, innovations like the creation of new products or the development of new methods of merchandising often gives rise to opportunities for a new business enterprise. The introduction of “Softy” ice cream and other soft-served frozen products made it possible for several hundred small businesses to get established in our country. The advent of single- service paper container was the spark that started several milk-plant operations which later grew into companies of considerable size. Ironically, the paper milk container also spelled the doom for many older independent plants that could not or did not adjust soon enough to this new way of packaging. The chocolate-coated ice-cream bar idea started a number of new enterprises which grew from small companies going to concerns of considerable size. Vending machines made it possible for many small companies to get started selling milk, ice cream, candy and lassi etc. 

Introduction

The dairy industry is a cornerstone of worldwide agricultural economies, underpinning nutrition, employment, and rural development. India stands out among nations with thriving dairy sectors, accounting for approximately 23% of global milk production (Prasad et al., 2023). With advent of Operation Flood in the late 1970s, India’s dairy industry has undergone transformative changes. This movement revolutionised milk production, rural income, and the organisation of cooperatives. The Indian dairy sector is still unorganized and only 18-20 per cent of the total milk produced is handled by organized sector (Gowda, 2023). There is rising trend of value addition along with rising demand of processed dairy products in India. These changes underscore the importance of effective dairy plant management systems, where strategic oversight of milk procurement, processing, and product manufacturing ensures quality, efficiency, and sustainability.

The GOI is pushing to strengthen infrastructure for the production of quality milk, as well as for procurement, processing, and marketing of milk and milk products through the following Dairy Development Schemes:

6.1. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS)

Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS) was started in September 2010. This scheme is being implemented through NABARD which provides financial assistance to commercially bankable projects with loans from Commercial, Cooperative, Urban and Rural banks.

Objective of the scheme

To generate self-employment and provide infrastructure for the dairy sector, to set up modern dairy farms and infrastructure for the production of clean milk, to encourage heifer calf rearing for conservation and development of good breeding stock, to bring structural changes in the unorganized sector so that initial processing of milk can be taken up at the village level, to upgrade traditional technology to handle milk on a commercial scale, to provide value addition to milk through processing and production of milk products.

1.1. Global Dairy Scenario

Global milk production is forecast at 852 million tonnes in 2019, an increase of 1.4 per cent from 2018 (DAHD, 2019) – a smaller rate of growth, reflecting downward revisions made for India and the European Union. Much of the anticipated output expansion will originate in India, Pakistan, China, the European Union, and Brazil, partially offset by declines in some countries including Australia, Colombia, and Argentina. In India and Pakistan, herd expansions drive output growth, while in China, farm efficiency improvements underpin higher growth. The output is increasing in the European Union, although slowly as dry weather limited the supply of milk during the summer, whilst rising dairy herds and stable milk prices are supporting higher production in Brazil. By contrast, the output may decline in Australia and Colombia due to dry weather, whereas in Argentina, rising feed costs and restrained consumer demand may dampen production. Elsewhere, in the United States, higher milk yields hold up the growth momentum, whereas, in New Zealand, favourable weather corroborates a positive production outlook (DAHD,19).

Reliable artificial intelligence depends on accurate, timely and multidimensional livestock data. This chapter examines the transition from manual record-keeping to sensor-based systems that capture physiological, behavioural, production and environmental information. Data sources include wearable devices, IoT monitoring networks, computer-vision systems and environmental sensors. Their applications include monitoring health, welfare, movement, feeding and productivity. The chapter also considers the integration of heterogeneous datasets and persistent challenges involving missing values, noise, interoperability, scalability and system reliability. By connecting data generation with intelligent analysis, it emphasizes that robust acquisition protocols and dependable infrastructure are essential for developing effective, evidence-based and responsive livestock-management systems.

Livestock farms generate large quantities of physiological, environmental, behavioural and production data through sensors, IoT devices and management records. Raw information must be processed before it can support dependable analysis. This chapter explains data cleaning, missing-value treatment, noise reduction, anomaly detection, integration, normalization, transformation and dimensionality reduction. It also discusses feature extraction, categorical encoding, variable transformation and temporal-feature analysis. Machine learning, AutoML, Python, R and other analytical platforms are introduced as tools for preparing livestock datasets. Applications include disease prediction, yield improvement and movement monitoring. The chapter concludes by examining scalability, data quality, privacy and ethical challenges in intelligent livestock analytics.

Traditional livestock diagnosis is often reactive and may identify disease only after clinical symptoms become visible. This chapter introduces deep-learning methods for automated health monitoring, early disease detection and predictive analytics. Models analyse images, videos, body temperature, heart rate, activity patterns and historical health information. Convolutional neural networks extract visual features and classify diseases, while LSTM networks identify patterns in time-dependent physiological and behavioural data. Multimodal fusion improves the reliability of predictions by integrating different data sources. IoT-connected systems can generate real-time warnings and support timely intervention. The chapter compares deep learning with conventional approaches and evaluates accuracy, recall, false-negative rates and practical deployment.

Ice cream defects can result from formulation imbalance, poor ingredient quality, processing deviations, inadequate freezing or hardening, packaging problems, storage conditions, and cold-chain failures. This chapter provides a systematic framework for understanding, classifying, diagnosing, and correcting defects affecting flavour, body, texture, melting, colour, appearance, packaging, and storage stability. It emphasizes that a visible defect in the finished product may originate much earlier in the production or distribution chain. Examples include iciness caused by slow freezing or temperature abuse, weak body associated with formulation or overrun, and flavour problems originating from raw materials or microbial activity. Defect analysis therefore becomes an important tool for troubleshooting, quality improvement, training, and preventive action.

Introduction

Any work condition revolves around three main components - the man, machine and environment. 'Man'-is represented by the worker who is either the controller or the executor of an action. Therefore the work output depends on how efficiently the workers are performing. In this context, the health of the worker is of utmost importance. It is one of the prime supporting pillars of productivity. If the health condition declines, efficiency is reduced and productivity suffers. Work involves a variety of physical and cognitive activities performed to achieve a desired or specified productivity. It may include a single individual or a small or large group of people as the worker. It is characterized by a specified duration, specific speed or work pace and a required amount of effort. The performance and efficiency expected from the workers have a direct bearing on the work process or work tool and the work environment. All these stress the bodily systems and affect the health of the worker. The stress could be classified as physiological stress and psychological stress Occupational health deals with the study and maintenance of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in the workplace (WHO, 1957). Occupational Physiology and Ergonomics are related branches of Occupational health that are in particular concerned with the study and maintenance of health and well-being during work.

Introduction

Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are identified by their morphological characteristics like flower, fruit and seeds that help their taxonomic characterization into different species, genera, families and orders. The floral characters which are used for taxonomic characterization of plants include the type of inflorescences, perianth structure, floral symmetry, arrangement of floral leaves, type of androecium, stamens, gynoecium, carpel, ovule, etc. The type of fruit and seed also play important roles in taxonomic classification. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about various morphological features of flowering plants (in botanical terms) that are useful in taxonomy.

Nomenclature of Plant

Nomenclature of plant is the formal and scientific naming of plants. It is related to but distinct from taxonomy for grouping and classifying plants and provide botanical name.

The scientific/botanical nomenclature started with Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

ICBN and ICN

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, (ICBN) was adopted by the VIIth International Botanical Congress held in Stockholm, July1950. While the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) was adopted by the XVIIIth International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011.

Commercial ice cream represents a highly diversified category influenced by formulation, processing technology, regulatory standards, consumer preferences, cost structures, and market positioning. This chapter explains the meaning and characteristics of commercial ice cream, with particular attention to the Indian regulatory and market context. It examines major commercial product types, their compositions, ingredient functions, and differences from artisanal products. The chapter also discusses contemporary market trends and changing consumer expectations, including premiumization and alternative formulations. Quality challenges such as ice crystal growth, sandiness, shrinkage, weak body, coating defects, and cold-chain failures are considered, providing readers with a practical understanding of commercial ice cream production and positioning.

14.1 Introduction

Eggs are an essential food for humans due to the high nutritional quality and quantity that they contain. Eggs are one of the most consumed foods all over the world because of its nutritious profile, range of uses, and relatively inexpensive cost as a food source. Intakes of total lipids, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids in human diets can be attributed, in part, to the consumption of animal products. Due to the high amounts of cholesterol (about 200-300 mg/100 g) and saturated fat (approximately 3 g/100 g), eggs have been considered to be contentious foods by several health organisations and nutritional experts.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

This chapter introduces specialty eggs whose composition, production system or marketing attributes differ from conventional eggs. It examines designer eggs, omega-3 enrichment, vitamin and mineral enrichment, organic egg production, free-range and cage-free systems, and welfare-oriented production. The chapter also addresses labelling, certification, consumer trust and the market prospects of specialty eggs. Particular attention is given to the biological basis and technological limits of nutritional enrichment and to critically evaluating claims concerning nutrition, welfare, safety and environmental benefits.

Isolation of RNA from Rat Liver
(Method of Schmidt and Thannhauser, 1945)
Principle

Most of the RNA (ribouncleic acid) of cells is found in the nucleoli and microsomes.These fractions of cells may be isolated by differential centrifugation of cellular homogenates and thus provide an enriched starting material for RNA extraction. Such methods require high speed  centrifugation. An alternate procedure used in the present method is to disrupt the whole cells by homogenization and isolate the nucleic acid of entire homogenate. This procedure consists of the following sequential steps.

1 Detection of Starch Introduction

Starch is widely available in several forms such as wheat flour, corn flour and commercially manufactured starch. It is extensively used by adulterators to raise the SNF content in the milk. When high amounts of starch are added to milk, it can cause diarrhea due to the indigestion of starch in colon. Apart from this, accumulation of starch in the body may prove very fatal for diabetic patients. In this method, starch in milk can be detected by using iodine solution. Iodine from the iodine solution gets absorbed on the starch molecule surface and resultant product of adsorption has deep blue colour.

Reagents

 • Potassium iodide

 • Iodine solution - 1% (Add 1 g of iodine and 5 g of potassium iodide in

distilled water and dilute to 100 ml)