eChapters

Introduction

Stress represents the reaction of body to stimuli that disturb normal physiological equilibrium or homeostasis, often with detrimental effects (Khansari et al., 1990). Domestic animals undergo various kinds of stress such as physical, nutritional, chemical, psychological and thermal stress (Marai et al., 2007; Nardone et al., 2010). Figure 1 summarises the different types of stressors and their effects on animals.

Introduction

A huge increase in the demand of animal production is expected in the next decades. Food and water security will be one of the other priorities for humankind in the 21st century. Over the same period the World will experience a change in the global climate that will cause shifts in local climate that will impact on local and global agriculture (Nardone et al. 2010). Global climate change is expected to alter temperature, precipitation, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and water availability in ways that will affect the productivity of crop and livestock systems (Hatfield et al. 2008). For livestock systems, climate change could affect the costs and returns of production by altering the thermal environment of animals thereby affecting animal health, reproduction, and the efficiency by which livestock convert feed into retained products (especially meat and milk).

Rearing poultry industrially is a necessity in the present condition where the demand is high and the land holdings for extensive rearing is diminishing. All over the world the poultry industry is growing rapidly. The poultry industry in India is growing at around 8 per cent per annum. The poultry population of the country mainly consists of chicken, ducks, quails, ornamental birds and ratites. Chicken form is the major component of the industry. They are mainly reared as broilers for meat purpose and as layers for eggs. The climatic variations and their effects on profitable poultry rearing are an important topic of study in the current situation, where intensive rearing and global warming are being discussed with equal importance. The welfare aspects of the birds are also a matter of concern all over the world. Thus the knowledge of normal physiology of poultry, the effects of the tropical climate on them and the measures to alleviate detrimental effects produced by adverse climatic conditions have been discussed in detail here.

Principle

The residue from the cell walls determination is extracted with boiling 8 percent sulphuric acid for one hour to hydrolyse the hemicellulose without dissolving cellulose, lignin or acid insoluble ash.

Equipment
    1.    Refluxing apparatus.
    2.     Filtering apparatus: same as described for cell wall determination
    3.    Filtering crucibles: same as described for cell wall determination.

Reagents

    1.    Sulphuric acid (8%) : Standardize Reagent grade sulphuric acid to specific gravity of 1.052 at 20ºC.
    2.    Bromocresol green indicator solution: Same as used for lignin determination.

This alternative pathway for glucose oxidation has enzymes in the cytosol through which glucose is degraded to carbon dioxide. It is also called a shunt because carbon atoms from glucose 6-phosphate take a long route before they proceed down the EMP or glycolytic pathway. This pathway is anabolic in nature as it produces many intermediates. In this pathway, two NADPH are generated from one glucose 6-phosphate molecule. No ATP is generated or consumed.
Overall, this pathway needs three glucose-6-phosphate molecules to complete all the reactions. Therefore, one cycle run produces 2 mol of fructose-6- phosphate, 1 mol of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, and 3 mol of carbon dioxide from 3 mol of glucose-6-phosphate with the reduction of 6 mol of NADP+ to NADPH.
Overall reactions of the HMP pathway are as follows:
3 Glucose-6-P + 6 NADP+→ 3 ribulose-5-P + 3 CO2 + 6 NADPH
3 Ribulose-5-P → 2 xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P
2 Xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P → 2 fructose-6-P + Glyceraldehyde-3-P

Hides and skin are the important and widely used animal by-products of slaughter house industry. Human beings are utilizing animal skins since time immorial and nomadic people still depend upon them for shelter, clothing, weapons, food containers etc. In general on live weight basis yield of hide is 7 percent while skin is around 11 percent.  Though it is also obtained from the fallen animals but the superior quality hide is always of slaughtered animals. Source wise slaughtered animals account 20-25 percent of hide and 80 percent of skin whereas fallen animals contributes around 75-80 percent of hide and 20 percent of skin. So the major sources for hide are fallen animals and skin is from slaughtered animals.

The art in producing high-boiled sweets with satisfactory shelf life is manufacturing boilings which contain the minimum amount of residual moisture and a satisfactory balance between cane or beet sugar, and glucose syrup or invert sugar syrup. The main physical change during the storage of high-boiled sweets is the formation of small crystals in the confection, usually referred to as graining, due to recrystallisation of sucrose. These spoil the appearance and cause an unpleasant roughness on the tongue.

For high-boiled sweets it is impossible, using the normal proportions of cane or beet sugar (sucrose) and glucose syrup, to obtain a product of 97% solids content, which is not supersaturated with respect to sucrose.

In practice, however, one-and-a-half parts of sugar (sucrose) to one part of forty-two DE glucose syrup will produce a high-boiled sweet stable against graining.

High Humidity Hot Air Impingement Blanching (HHAIB) is a modern blanching technology developed to overcome several limitations associated with conventional blanching. This chapter introduces HHAIB as a pretreatment used before drying, freezing, canning and frying, particularly for fruits and vegetables. It explains the underlying principle of high-humidity hot-air impingement and its effects on heat and mass transfer. The chapter discusses applications in pre-dehydration treatment, colour preservation, texture and structural integrity and enzyme inactivation. Comparative analysis with conventional blanching methods highlights its potential advantages in drying efficiency, quality retention and energy utilization, making HHAIB an important emerging technology for modern food processing.

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a novel method for non-thermal preservation technique of food that inactivates harmful pathogens and vegetative spoilage microorganisms. HPP is an alternate, non-thermal food processing method, wherein the food is subjected to a very high pressure range from 100 -800 MPa (1MPa = 145.03 Psi or 10 Bar). HPP is also referred as High hydrostatic pressure processing, Ultra high-pressure processing, Hyperbaric processing and Pascalization (Rao et al., 2014).

Ice cream has evolved from simple frozen preparations into a sophisticated food industry combining dairy science, food chemistry, refrigeration, microbiology, processing technology, packaging, and cold-chain management. This chapter introduces the historical development of ice cream and explains its transformation from a luxury product into a widely consumed frozen food. It examines the characteristics of the industry, major categories of ice cream and related frozen products, flavour classifications, composition, and quality characteristics. The chapter also presents the basic manufacturing process, important quality-control parameters, common manufacturing challenges, and emerging industry trends, providing a foundation for understanding ice cream as both a technical product and a commercial business.

Microorganisms (or microbes) are organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. The science of microbiology is the study of microorganisms, their properties, classification, growth requirements, method of reproduction and distribution in nature. These organisms range in size from tiny viruses to larger bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi and some of the microscopic worms (helminthes). They are present everywhere in our environment, in our homes, on our bodies, on the things we touch and on the food we eat. They are important for human survival on Earth, playing an essential role in many processes that maintain life. In nature, microorganisms carry out a number of important functions.

1.They are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter.

2.Recycling of nutrients that help to maintain the balance of chemicals in the soil.

3.Special nitrogen-fixing bacteria live symbiotically with certain plants, absorbing nitrogen from the air and converting it into compounds which can be used by the plant for growth.

4.Some algae are capable of photosynthesis, using energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide in air into carbohydrate.

5.Marine microorganisms form the basis of the food chain in lakes, rivers and oceans.

6.Certain microorganisms are used in the manufacture of food.

7.Pharmaceuticals and drugs.

8.Industrial processes.

9.A valuable tool for scientific research.

10.Use in laboratory experiments to understanding metabolic pathways and in the discovery of the genetic code.

The number of hormones secreted by the body exhibits control over the physiological regulation of glucose sugar level (homeostasis) in the manner needed by the body. Depending upon the situation, hormones may increase or decrease the level of glucose sugar present in the blood or tissues. The glucose is oxidized to yield energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
Glucose, more than the body’s needs, is stored or converted mainly to glycogen and, to some extent, protein and fat. If glucose is less than the need of the body, its denovo synthesis takes place from amino acids or fatty acids, or is formed from the breakdown of stored glycogen. Various hormones are secreted by multiple endocrine glands to control the blood glucose level. If it fails, it leads to hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia conditions. Gluconeogenesis is not developed at birth in the case of a baby pig. Therefore, hypoglycemia in baby pigs is observed within 2 days of age if starved, leading to hypoglycemia, weakness, confusion, and death.
15.1 The Hormones Involved in Homeostatic Regulation of Blood
Glucose Level
The hormones influencing carbohydrate metabolism are explained below:

Introduction

During transition period and lactation, the high-producing dairy cows undergo a period of extensive tissue catabolism because of negative nutrient balance. Homeorrhetic mechanism at this stage ensures that nutrients are partitioned to favour the growth of fetus prepartum and meet the demand of nutrients in early lactation. Simultaneously the homeostasis secures survival of the animal body functions. However, a decline in feed intake in transition period leads to metabolic disturbances and low milk production in early lactation. The postpartum negative nutrient balance impairs immune and reproductive functions in dairy cows and buffaloes. The increased demand for nutrients and decreased dry matter intake results in low circulating glucose and insulin levels and elevated non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and ketone bodies postpartum. The energetic status of a cow or buffalo modulates the secretion of hormones that play key roles in growth of ovarian follicles, ovulation, corpus luteum (CL) formation, and oocyte competence. The NEBAL not only limits milk production potential but also has a detrimental effect on immune cells. Negative nutrient balance is associated with changes in the pattern of ovarian follicle growth and oocyte quality and alteration in endocrines. In addition, cows under negative nutrient balance have extended periods of anovulation. These changes could be minimized by supplementing energy rich supplements like prilled fat or any bypass fat preparations.

Hormones are a group of biochemical messengers that assist in transmitting signals from one part of an organism to another. The term “hormone” was first coined by Ernest Starling in 1905 after the discovery of secretin, a chemical produced in the small intestine that regulates pancreatic secretions. In 1937 Went and Thimann defined hormones as “a substance which, produced in any one part of an organism, is transferred to another part and there influences a specific physiological process”. Since then hormones are also known as chemical messengers. These intercellular messengers are produced by specialized cells of endocrine glands, generally called effectors and released into the bloodstream thereby assisting in the regulation of physiological processes in target cells. Hormones assist in the regulation of a plethora of cell functions such as maintaining homeostasis, metabolism of biomolecules, growth, and reproductive function, and controlling blood pressure and glucose levels that are essential in orchestrating an intricate body- balance. The pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, parathyroid, and gonads (testis and ovary in males and females respectively) produce hormones. Apart from these endocrine glands, few other organs such as the kidney, heart, and liver are also involved in hormone production. The pituitary gland

Introduction

Hormones may be defined as specific chemical molecules produced in certain specific organs called specialized cells or endocrine glands. They are delivered into the blood stream or some other body fluid in minute amounts by the circulatory system of the body and their they exerts a physiological effect at a site of action remote from its origin, regulating numerous biological activities including growth, development, reproduction, water & electrolyte balance, storage & usage of energy etc.

By minimizing the harsh climate effects like heat, cold and rain, it is crucial to offer the proper circumstances for raising dairy cows in the tropics. Stress can be reduced through the design of the farm and the dwelling. Controlling the environment lowers the risk of stress and disease, improves management, and increases milk production.

According to Futter (2001) it is very important the way we cook our food. If the cooking is inadequate it causes food poisoning. While cooking there can be cross contamination starting from raw foods. It includes hands or utensils which can cause food poisoning. Most foods, especially meat, poultry, fish and eggs should be cooked thoroughly to kill most types of food poisoning bacteria. Generally the food should be cooked to a temperature of 75 °C or hotter. When food is cooked, it should be eaten promptly, kept hotter than 60 °C or cooled, covered and stored in the fridge or freezer. Some people are more at risk from food poisoning than others. In order to buy safe food in the market like buying pre-cut produce as a half a watermelon or cut veggies from a salad bar, it is important to choose items that are refrigerated or surrounded by ice. They must be kept in separate bags. FDA (2019) has studied the contamination in lettuce. Shopping at a farmer’s market is a great way to get locally-grown, fresh fruit, vegetables, and other foods. However, safety of these produce needs to be checked. Many markets have their own food safety rules and vendors must comply with them along with the government regulations. Fruits and vegetables must be washed thoroughly under running water just before eating, cutting or cooking. Fruits and vegetables must never be washed with soap or detergent or using commercial produce washes. Even if it has to be peeled before eating, it is still important to wash it first. Any bacteria present on the outside of items like melons can be transferred to the inside when it is cut or peeled. They should be refrigerated within two hours after preparation. The juice or cider must be treated (pasteurized) to kill harmful bacteria. Pregnant women, children, older adults and people with weak immune systems should drink only pasteurized or treated juice. Raw milk can harbor dangerous microorganisms like Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria. World India (2017) has looked into the food regulations. These can pose serious health risks. Pregnant women, older adults and people with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for illness caused by Listeria. One source for these bacteria is soft cheese made from unpasteurized milk. It is vital to check the label to make sure that it is made from pasteurized or treated milk. Make sure that eggs are properly chilled at the market. FDA requires that untreated shell eggs must be stored and displayed at 45°F. While buying eggs it needs to be ensured that the eggs are clean and the shells are not cracked. Meat should be properly chilled even in the market and kept in closed coolers with adequate amounts of ice to maintain cool temperatures. If it is brought in an insulated bag or cooler during transit it is very beneficial to keep the quality. It should be always kept separately from your other purchases, so that the juices from raw meat (which may contain harmful bacteria) do not come in contact with produce and other foods. Essays (2018) have written a very comprehensive overview of food safety.

Today, organic and local foods are preferred as they use less pesticides or fertilizers. However, these foods, like others, can be exposed to harmful bacteria during the growing and harvesting process. The farmers and distributors must use good sanitary practices to minimize food contamination. Consumers should cook food properly. The street food vendors are a traditional and indigenous fast food approaching in most countries of the South-East Asia Region. As these are economical they cater to millions of consumers. Among safe street foods there are many contributing factors that are associated with the safety of street food. WHO had conducted a survey in 1993 covering 100 street foods in 100 countries around the world. It revealed that the major health threat comes from raw and undercooked food, infected food handlers and inadequate hygiene practices in processing and storing such food. If the street food is cooked well and is served hot, then the chances of food poisoning is less. The water quality, hygienic conditions and the level of cleanliness especially in the summer season are the major factors for food poisoning. However improvements in physical infrastructure and hygienic conditions are growing as consumers are also demanding quality food. Michael et al., (2017) have looked into organic versus conventional foods.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Researchers interested in taking up research have initial difficultes in picking up a problem worth for investigation. At time they waste considérable amount of time in just thinking about the pros and cons of problems suggested by some ones or identified by himself/herself. It is basically due to misunderstanding about "what is research". Usual notion about research is that it must resuit in something spectacular or it must come up with a new discovery or theory. It must be pointed out that a study which brings forward new facts, or which demolishes or establishes a hypothesis or a theory or principal already in vogue, or which puts a variety of information in to order or system, or which prepares ground for further research is as valid as one which ends with a new discovery. The best research problem for researcher is one which arises from the researcher's own curiosity. The only thing is that researcher must know the tools which can handle the problems he proposed to take up. Before choosing for a problem for research one should as question to himself: is this problem really of interest to me?; Is it significant in the sense that it extends the frontiers of knowledge or fills an important gap in knowledge?; Can I handle this problem within the constraints of resources of money, time etc?; has this problem not been investigated by someone else? A good research proposai describes situation of problem, problem area, justification, methodology adopted for data collection, analysis, expected results and institution/ organisation that may use the outcome.