eChapters

Abstract

It is well known that drying is an important unit operation in food processing industries, essentially used to extend the shelf life but also in making innovative processed products such as snacks with desired functionalities. Although drying of food products is carried out traditionally using several methods, the quality and energy aspects have been major focus of food drying research in the last decade or two. This is achieved by modifying and/or optimizing the existing drying systems, improving pre and post processing of the product, combination of more than one dryer type or developing altogether a new drying technique. There several dryer types which can give extremely good product quality, however, cost-effectiveness can be a major issue. It is necessary to balance both good product quality and minimum energy usage in order to sustain highly competitive market. This lecture will provide an overview of conventional drying methods used for foods, followed by some advances in these conventional methods and a discussion on some new drying techniques developed in recent years that are either commercialized or have potential of industrial use.

1. Introduction:- Understanding Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
1.1 Definition and Core Principles of GLP
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines Good Laboratory Practice as “a managerial quality control system that governs the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and thus, environmental safety studies are well planned, executed/ performed, vigilantly monitored, properly recorded, reported, and finally archived”. This definition highlights that Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a comprehensive framework focused on ensuring the quality and integrity of the entire study lifecycle, rather than dictating the scientific validity of the research itself. The primary goal of GLP is to ensure process integrity and data traceability, which are essential for the regulatory acceptance of safety data for a variety of products. These products include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, cosmetics, veterinary drugs, food additives, feed additives, and industrial chemicals, all of which undergo non-clinical testing to assess their potential health and environmental risks. It is important to note that GLP principles specifically apply to these non-clinical studies and exclude research involving human subjects. The OECD Principles of GLP are internationally recognized and serve as the basis for GLP regulations in numerous countries worldwide. These principles outline the responsibilities of key personnel involved in non-clinical studies, including test facility management, the study director, study personnel, and quality assurance personnel. Furthermore, they establish minimum standards concerning the suitability of facilities and equipment to perform studies, as well as the necessity for comprehensive Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide all aspects of laboratory operations. The core principles of GLP encompass a wide range of elements critical to ensuring the quality and integrity of laboratory studies. These OECD principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) include: the proper organization team and personnel staff members within the testing facility, the well establishment of a robust quality assurance programme, the better suitability and proper maintenance of various necessary facilities, the efficient management of apparatus, materials, and reagents, the characterization and control of test systems, the handling of test and reference items, the development and adherence to Standard Operating

These products were originally flavoured with the herb marshmallow but a modem marshmallow is a foam that has been stabilised by a gelling agent. The traditional material for marshmallows is egg albumen which acts both as a foaming and gelling agent - this gives light, soft gel. Gelatine is now more commonly used, and once again can act as both a whipping and gelling agent. A gelatine marshmallow is soft and rubbery but heavier than an egg albumen one. Further gelling agents, e.g., pectin, agar and starch all give a soft, short textured gel. These gelling agents have the advantage of being vegetable products but have the disadvantage of normally needing a whipping agent as well. Enzyme-modified soya products have also recently become available for this use.

Methods of Marshmallow Manufacturing:

Introduction

Aflatoxins are a group of highly subsituted coumarine, of which aflatoxin B1 and G1 are  most  highly hepatotoxic (toxic to liver) to animals. The toxins are produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus and other species of Aspergillus which develop in many food stuffs, particularly groundnuts. cottonseed, and their cake and flour. Protein concentrates meant for babies as well as adult are now a day  made from groundnut flour and the cakes are used as feed for poultry and livestock. It has been found that even fodgrains such as maize, rice and wheat are attacked by the fungus producing the toxins.

Ageing of meat is also known as conditioning or tenderising or ripening or maturing and sometime resolution of rigor. It is a process of holding unprocessed meat above freezing point under controlled conditions. By this process we can make muscle soft and pliable thus meat becomes tender. When we keep the meat above freezing point at temperature between 0-3ºC then all those changes occurs which are normally occurs at higher temperature i.e. atmospheric oxidation and enzymatic action of fat, bacterial action etc. When this temperature range becomes below freezing point then it inhibits completely the enzymatic action in the muscles. Ageing is required for marked increase in flavour, juiciness and tenderness of meat. In this process action of enzymes in meat plays key role while bacterial action is not of any importance. Meat tenderness and taste are definitely improved if carcasses or vacuum packed cuts are conditioned after slaughter but paradoxically beef is quite tender just two hours after slaughter and several days of conditioning are required to recover this degree of tenderness.

During the contraction of muscles, thick and thin filaments sliding to each other and decreases the length of sarcomeres. In turn, this decreases the length of fibrils, fibres and the whole muscle. If these muscles remain in contracted length when rigor develops, it causes massive overlap of thick and thin filaments leading to severe meat toughness. It is also necessary to avoid the cooling of meat too rapidly after slaughter, otherwise it cold-shortens and gets tough. If we avoid cold-shortening of muscles during conditioning, it will increase meat tenderness. But with too much conditioning, weight loss, surface spoilage and the cost of refrigerated storage increases.

Ageing of carcasses with little or no fat cover is not recommended by meat specialists. Because these carcasses loose moisture rapidly, loose weight excessively and discolour the meat surface rapidly. In addition, lean meat is also susceptible to deterioration through microbial growth, slime formation by bacteria and mould growth etc. Ageing is important for beef and buffalo meat while pork and lamb do not require ageing because they are slaughtered in the age where they are young and inherently tender. Additionally, the unsaturated fats found in pork fat oxidize during ageing causes rancidity and off flavour. Veal has very little protective fat covering and is high in moisture; thus it does not lend itself to ageing.

Introduction

Though, India is bestowed with large livestock population (512.05 million) to which cattle buffaloes, goats and sheep contribute 190.90, 108.70, 135.2 and 65.07 numbers in millions, respectively (DADF, 2018), but at the same time, facing with a great shortage of crop residues, greens and concentrates for animal sustainability (NIANP, 2013). The shortage of these conventional feeds and fodders tropical and sub-tropical regions has already been documented and well recognized (Maneerat et al., 2015). The feed and fodder resources are gradually decreasing throughout India owing to many factors like shrinkage of common property resources and shift towards the cultivation of commercial crops etc. (Biradar and Kumar, 2013). Based on feed production and feed requirement calculated as above, India falls short by 219.2 Mt of green fodder and 226.73 MT of dry fodder (Earagariyanna et al., 2017). India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 percent and a dry fodder shortage of 23.5 percent and if the current situation continues then India's green fodder shortage will reach 66 percent and dry fodder will reach 25 percent by 2030 (Jitendra, 2017). This scenario demands the utilization of alternate non-conventional feed resources to sustain and economize livestock farming. The issues can be addressed by those unconventional resources like agricultural wastes which are widely available at low or zero cost and too with minimal treatment may serve as potential nutritional feeding material for animals.

Artificial intelligence can detect subtle changes in animal health before they become apparent through conventional observation. This chapter examines machine learning, deep learning and predictive analytics for livestock disease prediction and diagnosis. Models use physiological signals, diagnostic images, behaviour patterns, environmental conditions and historical records to recognize abnormalities and estimate disease risk. Wearable sensors and IoT devices enable continuous monitoring and early-warning systems, supporting preventive veterinary care and outbreak management. AI-based detection can reduce mortality, treatment costs and production losses while improving decision-making. The chapter also evaluates challenges involving inconsistent data, model interpretability, rural infrastructure, technical accessibility and the practical implementation of diagnostic systems.

This chapter introduces artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer vision and spectroscopy for rapid, automated and non-destructive egg-quality assessment. It covers machine-vision fundamentals, image acquisition and preprocessing, feature extraction, machine-learning models, deep learning, convolutional neural networks, hyperspectral methods and defect detection. Applications include crack detection, freshness prediction and internal-quality assessment. The chapter also examines model validation, transfer learning, sensor integration, commercial grading-line requirements and the practical limitations of deploying AI systems at industrial scale.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment. The concern to determine the importance of the airflow as a possible source of contamination in dairy and food industry is growing, because the airborne dust particles can introduce foreign matter including microbial contaminants into the dairy products. Maintenance of air quality in a dairy factory plays an important role and is very much monitored by controlling the temperature, humidity and particle concentration. Air quality control is required for the comfort and safety of employees. To reduce the possibility of contamination in products it is necessary to impose additional controls on air quality. Airborne contamination can be controlled by air filtration.

Abstract

Health benefits of aloe vera include its application in wound healing, treating burns, protection against skin damage, lung cancer, intestinal problems, increasing high density lipoprotein (HDL), reducing low density lipoprotein (LDL), reducing blood sugar in diabetics, fighting acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), allergies and improving immune system. Phytochemistry of aloe vera gel has revealed the presence of more than 200 bioactive compounds. Aloe vera gel is extracted from its leaves and appropriate processing techniques are needed for stabilization and preparation of the food products. Aloe vera gel products have become available in our country for internal consumption as a tonic and diversification in its products is on progress. The use of aloe vera has gained popularity because of herbal movement initiated by naturopaths, yog gurus, alternative medicine promoters and holistic healers. A recent market analysis report indicates that Americans have spent almost 40 billion dollars on functional foods, drinks and supplements for the improvement of their appearance as well as to provide energy and added nutrition to handle health issues such as hypercholesterolemia and diabetes.

Milk is considered to be a perfect food which contains almost all the macroand micronutrients required for normal body growth. However, it is highly perishable in nature which poses problem during its storage. It gets spoiled within few hours after milking if not processed or cooled immediately. It can also be a source of several disease causing microbes as it is conducive for the growth of microorganisms.

Use of animals in teaching is an inevitable process of learning in Veterinary and Animal Science colleges. Consequently, animals have to be handled for anatomical demonstration, surgical practice and used as experimental animals in various investigatory researches. The apprehensions and pain the animals have to suffer from these handlings (mishandlings) have brought the need to look for alternative ways to deal with animals and yet the purpose of learning about them does not diminish. Now-a-days, a growing emphasis is placed on minimizing the overall use of animals alongside advancements in science.

Abstract

The amaranth as a pseudocereal has shown its role in the development and diversification of agricultural products and food which is a priority trend for world agriculture. The amaranth has excellent nutrient profile and technological advantage in various food formulations in comparison to other conventional cereals. Recently, current interest in amaranth also resides in the fact that it has a great amount of genetic diversity, phenotypic plasticity and is extremely adaptable to adverse growing conditions, resists heat and drought, has no major disease problem. This crop is among the easiest of plants to grow in agriculturally marginal lands in hilly area. Moreover, these contain significant amount of bioactive components such as phytosterols, squalene and polyphenols along with good amount of micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins. Amaranth consumption has been shown to improve plasma lipid profile in animals. Methanolic extracts of amaranth have demonstrated anti-hyperlipidemic,anti-diarrheic, anti-fungal and anti-malarial properties. Specific polyphenols such as rutin, isoquercetin and nicotiflorin and phenolic acids and amides with antioxidant activity have been found in amaranth seeds. In addition to above, amaranth, seeds are gluten free and thus they are currently emerging as healthy alternatives to gluten containing grains in gluten free diet for celiac people.

Amino acids are organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). However, sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) are also found in some cases. Amino acids are essential organic compounds that come together to create proteins, thus making them the fundamental building blocks of proteins. These biomolecules play vital roles in various biological and chemical processes within the human body and are essential for the growth and development of an individual.

Amino acids consist of an acidic group (-COOH), a basic group (-NH2 ), and a side chain (R) or a hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded to the carbon atom. The features of amino acids are due to the side chain because they differ only in their side chain. All amino acids have the same basic structure except proline, which has a cyclic structure.

Various forms of amino acids like alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) or delta (σ) form are found. The position of the amino group (-NH2 ) determines the form of the amino acid, i.e., if the NH2 group is attached to the α-carbon, it is called α-amino acid; if β-carbon, it is called β-amino acid, and so on. Mostly, α-Amino acids are found as the numbering of amino acids is done from the carboxylic group (-COOH).

Introduction

Present work report the study on Jakekur dam situated 4 km. from Omerga

The degradation of dam has occurred not only due to influents inflow but also by sanitation, domestic sewage, agricultural waste, and other activities around the dam like washing cloths, cattle, vehicles, and dumping of solid waste. Apart from it a large number of heavy metals is contributed by corrosion of metal pipe, runoff water from surrounding area during rainy season discharge of decorative paints in water bodies.

Geographical and morphological features of Jakekur dam.

Catchments area : 2110 hector

Gross storage : 10.17 TM C

Full reservoir level : 10 meter.

Length of the dam : 21.25 km.

Height of the dam : 14.80 meter.

Introduction

Milk is regarded as the “ideal food” as it contains nutrients necessary for both newborns and adults (Azad & Ahmed, 2016). It is high in protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Unfortunately, milk is easily adulterated all over the world for several reasons, including a gap between supply and demand, the inherent nature of milk which can imbibe many adulterants that are difficult to identify, the low purchasing power of consumers, an insufficient share of the organized sector in the dairy business, and, most importantly, a lack of efficient and rapid methods for detecting adulterants (Ellis et al., 2012; Moore et al., 2012).

Introduction

Global warming is chiefly due to combustion of fossil fuels for multifarious energy needs, causing emission of greenhouse gases which trap energy from the sun leading to warming. These climate changes bring in variation in patterns and emergence of new zoonotic diseases to newer areas. These changes sometimes create conducive conditions for the propagation of insect vectors. History shows that most of the diseases have a direct correlation with climatic changes. The survival and propagation of pathogens are directly related to temperature and humidity etc. Extreme shifts in weather patterns resulting from global warming and climate changes adversely affect the ecosystem resulting in new diseases, re-emergence of earlier diseases including emergence of zoonotic diseases. The emergence of the new cholera strain O: 139 and outbreaks of Dengue, West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever in newer and non-endemic areas have been linked with the El Nino effect. The spread of disease agents may be facilitated by factors including environmental conditions, the presence and availability of suitable hosts, the arthropod's feeding behavior and host preferences.

Analytical testing provides objective evidence of the composition, safety, physical structure, and sensory quality of ice cream. This chapter introduces the major analytical approaches used in industrial ice cream manufacturing, including chemical, physical, microbiological, and sensory evaluation. Important parameters such as fat, milk solids-not-fat, protein, sugars, ash, acidity, pH, overrun, meltdown, fat destabilization, texture, and product weight are discussed. The chapter explains how different tests support routine quality control, product development, troubleshooting, research, regulatory compliance, and shelf-life studies. It emphasizes that no single analytical parameter can define overall quality. Effective product evaluation requires integrated interpretation of chemical, physical, sensory, microbiological, and storage data.