eChapters

Introduction

Spray drying process has been used for decades to encapsulate food ingredients such as flavors, lipids, and carotenoids. During this drying process, the evaporation of solvent, that is most often water, is rapid and the entrapment of the interest compound occurs quasi-instantaneously. This required property imposes a strict screening of the encapsulating materials to be used in addition to an optimization of the operating conditions. Likewise, if the encapsulated compound is of hydrophobic nature, the stability of the feed emulsion before drying should also be considered.

Abstract

Spray drying is one of the most preferred methods of converting food and pharmaceutical solutions into powder form. Very high product throughput, hygienic and highly automated process and relatively benign thermal and dehydration stress on products associated with this process has made it ubiquitous in powder manufacture. Compared to freeze drying, spray drying is significantly less expensive both in terms of operation and capital costs. In this chapter, key features of spray drying such as underlying operational principle, types of spray nozzles used, the flow pattern of droplets/particles and drying medium within the drying chamber, the particle formation process of individual droplet are discussed in considerable detail. The modelling aspect of a single droplet subjected to spray drying environment has also been included. Finally, the most commonly considered characteristics of spray dried powders including morphology, crystalline/amorphous nature and solubility are highlighted and discussed.  The content presented in this chapter will be very useful for practising engineers, technologists, researchers as well as postgraduate and undergraduate students.

Stabilizers and emulsifiers are used in small quantities but have major effects on the structure and quality of ice cream. This chapter explains the differences between these two functional ingredient groups and describes their roles in controlling water mobility, fat destabilization, air-cell stability, texture, meltdown, and heat-shock resistance. It discusses commonly used stabilizers and emulsifiers, their individual characteristics, and the advantages of using blended systems. Particular attention is given to formulation balance and the defects that may arise from incorrect selection or dosage, including gummy texture, weak body, poor meltdown, and structural instability. Practical guidelines help manufacturers select and use these ingredients effectively for consistent product quality.

1. Introduction
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a systematic quality system essential for
ensuring the reliability, consistency, and integrity of laboratory data, particularly when the findings are used for regulatory decision-making. GLP ensures that laboratory studies are conducted in a scientific manner, maintaining high standards of ethical practice, precision, and reproducibility, with a primary focus on ensuring public and environmental safety. Introduced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1978, GLP gained global recognition through the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which established guidelines for its implementation. GLP principles are now widely adopted in regulatory testing for pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food safety, and environmental testing. The OECD’s guidance on GLP has been instrumental in developing standards across the globe, ensuring that test results are scientifically valid and can be accepted internationally. In Asia, particularly in India and other developing countries, GLP compliance has gained increasing importance as pharmaceutical, environmental, and chemical industries expand. Regulatory bodies in these regions have gradually aligned their standards with international norms to ensure their competitiveness in global markets. This chapter discusses the key SOPs necessary for GLP compliance and provides a regional perspective, focusing on India and other Asian nations, where GLP frameworks are evolving to meet international standards.
2. Objective of GLP
The overarching objective of GLP is to ensure that laboratory data is accurate, reliable, and reproducible across different studies. The scientific and regulatory communities rely on GLP to ensure that findings from preclinical studies and safety evaluations can be trusted and utilized for regulatory approval.
The key objectives of GLP include
• Accuracy and Integrity of Data: GLP ensures that every aspect of data collection, analysis, and reporting is conducted with integrity and accuracy, preventing errors or falsification that could affect regulatory decisions.

Normal Solution in Analytical Chemistry

A normal solution is that one that contains one equivalent weight expressed  in grams (one gram equivalent weight) to be dissolved substance per litre of solution, or one gram-milliequivalent weight per millilitre.

In the case of acid a 1N solution contains 1.008 gram of replaceable hydrogen per litre of solution. A 1N solution of a base is one that contains 17.008 of hydroxyl per litre. A 1N solution of a precipitating agent contains a weight of precipitating ion equivalent to 1.008 hydrogen. The quantity of pure reagent necessary per litre of 1N solution of a precipitating solution is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the valency of the precipitating ion. In case of normal solution of oxidising and reducing agents, the amount is calculated by dividing the gram molecular weight by the total valency change in the ion concerned.

Unit of Length

A metre (m) is taken from the international prototype metre at the International Bureau of weights and measures; at 32ºF. (0ºC) = 39.37 inches (in.) = 3.280833 feet (ft.) = centimetres (Cm.). A centimetre (Cm.) = 10 millimetres (mm.) = 10,000 microns (µ) = 0.337 inch (in.) or 10-4cm. A millimetre (mm.) = 1,000 microns (µ) = 0.03937 inch. A micron (mµ) = 1,000 milli-microns (µ) = 3.937x10-5 inch. A milli-micron (mµ) = 0.001 micron or 10-7 cm. A foot (ft.) = 0.3048006 metre (m.) = 30.48006 centimetres (Cm.) = 12 inches (in.)., inch = 2.5 cm. An inch (in.) = 2.539998 centimetres (Cm.) = 25.39998 mm = 25,399.98 microns (µ).

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Standardization

Standardization means establishment of standards for matters such as quality, size, weight and color. Once standards are set grading is possible using the criteria established in the standards. Thus, standardization involves establishment and maintenance of uniform measurements of produce quality and/or quantity.

Grading

Grading follows standardization. It is a sub-function of standardization. It is a method of dividing products into certain groups or lots in accordance with predetermined standard. Grading before sale enables farmers to get a higher price for their produce .Consumer get standard quality products at fair prices. It is easier for them to compare the prices of different qualities of a product in the market. It minimizes their purchasing risk, for they will not get a lower quality product at the given prices .e.g. eggs are graded into different categories based on set standards. Similarly cattle feed is also sometimes categorized into different grades based on established standards.

In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made there under as amended from time-to-time.

This chapter introduces the standards, certification and labelling systems that establish confidence in wool quality and commercial descriptions. It discusses the roles of the International Wool Textile Organisation, ISO and the Bureau of Indian Standards in developing testing and product standards. Fibre-content declarations, care labels, Woolmark certification, quality assurance, accreditation and traceability are examined. The chapter also considers geographical indications and protection of heritage products, showing how standards and certification support fair trade, consumer protection and premium positioning.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;

Livestock farming is an important activity to a large population of small and marginal farmers as well as landless agricultural labourers of Tamil Nadu. It also provides employment opportunities for most of the unemployed and underemployed in the rural areas. Tamil Nadu is bounded by the Eastern Ghats on the north, by the Nilgiris, the Anamalai Hills and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, and by the Indian Ocean on the south. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area. The land area has been classified into seven agro-climatic zones based on soil characteristics, rainfall distribution, irrigation pattern, cropping pattern and other ecological and social characteristics. Tamil Nadu endowed with 13.97 per cent of recognised breeds of the domestic ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats) with 22.55 millions of population (19^thLivestock Census-2012).

Starter cultures were unknown until 1878, when Lister isolated pure cultures of the lactic acid bacteria responsible for milk acidification. In the 1980s, improvements to standardization and ripening of butter were made by introducing pure starter cultures. During the period 1910-20, Orla-Jensen, von Freudenreich, Sherman, Hammer and other dairy microbiologists prepared pure cultures for fermented milks. Commercial production and use of starter cultures grew rapidly and was widespread at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Dairy starters are the ‘heart’ of fermented milk products, the most crucial component in the manufacture of high-quality fermented milks. The cultures are harmless food-grade microorganisms, active bacteria intentionally grown in milk or whey or other formulated media which impart desirable and predictable flavour and texture to fermented dairy products.

The dairy microorganisms employed in milk fermentation are single-strain or multiple-strain cultures of lactic acid bacteria, producing different types of fermented milk products. Usually, one or two strains dominate the milk environment. Individual strains can be selected in advance for their resistance to both bacteriophages and antibiotics. Mixed starter cultures are used to ensure that fermentation will continue after a bacteriophage attack. Bacteriophages are highly strain-specific, and if the dominant strain in a mixed-strain starter culture succumbs to an attack, the phage-resistant mutant or the next dominant culture maintains a satisfactory rate of lactic acid production.

In old days, Statistics is considered as a method for collected numerical information. In general, Statistics deals with concepts, principles and methods dealing with collection, summarization, analysis and interpretation of data. Data means a collection of numerical facts. Data is plural and singular is datum. Generally there are two classifications for data, quantitative and qualitative. In the case of quantitative character the individuals are measured. While in the case of qualitative character, the individuals are distinguished by some quality. Data collected by the investigator for the purpose of the investigation are known as primary data. E.g., data obtained in a population census. Data collected by others for some other purpose and is used by the investigator are known as secondary data. E.g., Annual Reports, Official publication etc. The aggregate of all the observations pertaining to a character is called a population. Sample is a part of the population selected according to some definite rule. Usually the sample is used to make an inference about the population. In other words sample is a miniature of the population. The methods by which we analyze the data are called statistical methods. At the end of the enquiry, the investigators will naturally left with a large number of filled up schedules and a very efficient statistician couldn?t interpret anything from it unless it is classified and extracted. When we classify based on the quality like colour, sex, religion etc. which can?t measure directly, the classification is qualitative. But characteristics such as height, weight, length, time etc. can be easily measured using a scale. Such are called quantitative characteristics. The quantitative characteristics may be discrete or continuous. In the case of numerical values like number of petals in a flower, number of days in which rain occurred in a month etc. are whole numbers and are called discrete variables. If there may occur many values with in an interval, we call it as continuous variables.

Sterilization is defined as the process by which an article, surface or medium is freed of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore state.

Disinfection means the destruction or removal of all pathogenic organisms, or organisms capable of giving rise to infection. Chemical disinfectants which can be safely applied to skin or mucous membrane and are used to prevent infection by inhibiting the growth of bacteria are called antiseptics.

Five main methods are used for sterilization. 1. Red heat (flaming) 2. Dry heat (hot air) 3. Moist heat 4. Filtration 5. Radiation.

The killing effect of dry heat is due to protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes. The lethal effect of moist heat is due to the denaturation and coagulation of protein. In the case of spore, steam condenses on it, increasing its water content with ultimate hydrolysis and breakdown of the bacterial protein.

Sterilization is a thermal process aimed at destroying all microorganisms and microbial spores in milk, ensuring the product is microbiologically safe and shelf-stable at room temperature for extended periods. It is primarily used in the production of sterilized milk and evaporated milk, with typical conditions involving heating at 116°C for 15 minutes. This process kills all microorganisms and also inactivates all milk enzymes, including plasmin, which might otherwise contribute to spoilage during storage. However, enzymes produced by psychrotrophic bacteria should not be present in raw milk, as they are highly heat-stable and may remain active even after sterilization. Sterilized milk can be stored at room temperature for longer period. Sterilization kills all microorganisms and inactivates all microbial spores that may germinate under the storage conditions of the product in the market.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) define “sterilization” in relation to milk and milk products as the process of heating the product in a sealed container continuously to at least 115°C for 15 minutes. This treatment ensures that the milk can be preserved at room temperature for a period of not less than 30 days.
In-bottle sterilised milk is a shelf-stable dairy product produced by sealing milk in glass bottles and subjecting it to high-temperature heat treatment. Typically, the milk is heated to temperatures ranging from 110°C to 121°C for 15 to 30 minutes. This process effectively destroys all vegetative microorganisms and bacterial spores, making the milk microbiologically safe and extending its shelf life up to 6–9 months without refrigeration. The heating is usually done in batch retorts or autoclaves after the milk has been bottled and sealed. Although the process ensures safety, it often leads to a slight cooked flavour and some nutritional losses, particularly in heat-sensitive vitamins such as vitamin B1 and vitamin C.

Introduction
• The main objective of food preservation is to avoid food spoilage • So, the underlying principle behind all the meat preservation technique is providing adverse conditions for the growth and survival of the harmful microbials and such adverse conditions may be provided in the from of heat, cold, high level of salt, increasing acidity or removal of water/ oxygen
• Meat can be preserved by many techniques such as drying, heating, low temperature, curing, addition of chemicals or by application of irradiation and high pressure
• Addition of chemical i.e. chemical preservation which is accomplished by smoking is generally done after salting and pickling of meat
Physical changes in stored raw meat
1. Shrinkage
2. Sweating
3. Bloom loss

Introduction

Enterprise management involves a combination of tools, strategies, and processes that work together to form a cohesive plan and framework supporting overall operations. The key is ensuring that these elements are interconnected, which enables the smooth flow of information and minimizes redundancies.

Core business functions such as human resources and supply chain management often operate in isolation. However, this separation can slow down business operations, create unnecessary obstacles, and lead to loss of revenue or customers.

By viewing each business area as interconnected, these silos can be eliminated, leading to more efficient operations. For instance, a well-functioning human resources team can hire the right talent, which, in turn, strengthens marketing and sales efforts. As sales grow, revenue increases, enabling further improvements in logistics operations.

Introduction

Livestock plays an important role in the sustainable livelihood of poor people of rain-fed agro-ecosystem, because of inherent risk involved in the crop farming due to uncertainty of rainfall and occurrence of recurrent droughts. They provide income and increased economic stability, and often the most important “cash crops” in small-scale mixed farming systems. Livestock sector in India is highly livelihood intensive and most rural households own livestock of one species or the other and earn supplementary incomes from them. Livestock holding is less iniquitous than land holding and income from livestock is more equitably distributed. The sector contributes 25.6 per cent of the value of output at current prices of total value of output in agriculture, fishing & forestry sector and in GDP, it was 4.11% in 2012-13 (19^th livestock census, 2012) therefore, development of the livestock sector is the critical pathway to rural prosperity

As per the 19^th livestock census, the total livestock population consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horses & Ponies, Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak in the country is 512.05 million numbers in 2012. The total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 299.9 million numbers in 2012 which shows a decline of 1.57% over previous census. In percentage basis distribution of livestock were: 37.28% were cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats and 2.01% pigs. The corresponding figures as per the 18th Livestock Census were 37.58%, 19.89%, 13.50%, 26.53% and 2.10%. The number of milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes has increased from 111.09 million to 118.59 million, an increase of 6.75%. The number of animals in milk in cows and buffaloes has increased from 77.04 million to 80.52 million showing a growth of 4.51%. The Female Cattle (Cows) Population has increased by 6.52% over the previous census (2007) and the total number of female cattle in 2012 is 122.9 million numbers. The Female Buffalo population has increased by 7.99% over the previous census and the total number of female buffalo is 92.5 million numbers in 2012. The buffalo population has increased from 105.3 million to 108.7 million showing a growth of 3.19%. The total sheep in the country is 65.06 million numbers in 2012, declined by about 9.07% over census 2007. The Goat population has declined by 3.82% over the previous census and the total Goat in the country is 135.17 million numbers in 2012. The total poultry population in the country has increased by 12.39% over the previous census and the total poultry in the country is 729.2 million numbers in 2012. The total number of animals in milk in the country is 116.77 Million numbers.

Introduction
AMR is a critical global problem that affects human, environmental, and animal health. AMR is a complex problem; it is necessary to look at it from different disciplines to frame it within the One Health approach [Shrestha,2018].The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified AMR as a top ten global public health threat.Globally, there were an estimated 4.95 million deaths associated with bacterial AMR in 2019, including 1.27 million deaths attributable to bacterial AMR [O’Neill, J. (2016)]. The economic impact is equally alarming. The World Bank projects that AMR could lead to an additional US$ 1 trillion in healthcare costs by 2050, and over US$ 1 trillion in annual gross domestic product (GDP) losses by 2030.The One Health approach is defined as a joint effort of various disciplines that come together to provide solutions for human, animal, and environmental health. AMR is linked to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, cattle raising, and human medicine). Under the pressure of antimicrobial selection, bacteria acquire resistance genes and mobile genetic elements that can spread to other bacteria of the same or different genus. When bacteria acquire resistance to antimicrobials, they also acquire a greater ability to proliferate in animals, humans, and the natural world. Mismanagement of antimicrobials, inadequate infection control, agricultural debris, contaminants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance [Collignon,et.,al,2018]. AMR represents a global public health problem, for which epidemiological surveillance systems have been established, aiming to promote collaborations directed at the well-being of human and ani mal health and the balance of the ecosystem. Several international organizations (The World Organisation for Animal Health [OIE], WHO, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO]) have joined forces to develop a Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance-WHO. Action taken in this plan included understanding the AMR from surveillance and research. The advisory group established guidelines for AMR surveillance to ensure all countries implement integrated surveillance, which will cover the use and consumption of antimicrobials in the human and animal population. These guide lines will provide a clear understanding of how AMR spreads in different settings and specific areas. It will allow to study the correlation between AMR and antimicrobial use in a different setting (animals, humans, and environment) and to assess the effect of interventions within and between sectors [W.H.O 2015,2017].