eChapters

The word meat comes from the old english word mete, which referred to food in general. Most often this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys and lungs etc. In other words we can say meat is those animal tissues which are suitable for use as food by the man. It is composed of numerous types of tissues like muscle tissues, epithelial tissues and nervous tissues but the major component of meat is muscle. Particularly skeletal muscle is the principal source of muscle tissue in meat while smooth muscle contributes little to meat. The muscle and connective tissues are the major compositional components and contributes towards qualitative and quantitative characteristics of meat. Broadly muscle can be classified into striated and smooth muscles. Striated muscles have transverse band pattern as seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle. However, smooth muscles do not show such pattern and mainly found as a component of blood vessels.

This chapter introduces the biological structure and formation of the hen egg. It examines the shell, cuticle, shell membranes, albumen, yolk, vitelline membrane, chalazae and germinal disc and explains the functions of each component. The chapter also describes the reproductive system of the laying hen, oogenesis and the sequence and timing of egg formation within the oviduct. Comparative egg structures of other poultry species and shell pigmentation are discussed, along with shell ultrastructure and quantitative composition.

3.1 Introduction

Eggs are composed of three main parts; the eggshell with the eggshell membrane, the albumen or white, and the yolk. The yolk is surrounded by albumen, which in turn is enveloped by eggshell membranes and finally a hard eggshell.

3.2 Eggshell

The eggshell is composed of a foamy layer of cuticle, a calcite or calcium carbonate layer, and two shell membranes. The ultrastructurally the eggshell includes shell membranes, mammillary zone, calcium reserve assembly, palisades, and cuticle, with 7,000 – 17,000 funnel shaped pore canals distributed unevenly on the shell surface for exchange for water and gases

Size shape and Appearance of Bacterial cells

Bacteria vary significantly in their morphology, that is in their appearance. They range in size from 0.2 μm to1 μm in diameter and 1 μm to 10 μm in length. There are three basic shapes of cells :

1. Spherical

2. Rod-shaped

3. Spiral.

Abstract

This review presents an idea on the botanical description, medicinal properties and traditional usage of wild, edible and aromatic plant (Nymphaea alba) in the human nutrition. Nymphaea alba Lin, also known as the White Water lily, White Lotus, or Nenuphar is an aquatic flowering plant of the family Nymphaeaceae. Nymphaea is a weed in India and its production pretty much as good as water chest nut and Nelumbo nucifera. Its rhizome is rich in tannic acid, gallic acid, alkaloids, sterols, flavonoids, glycosides, hydrolysable tannins and high-molecular-weight polyphenolic compounds. It is used as associate aphrodisiac, anodyne, antiscrophulatic, astringent, cardiotonic, demulcent, sedative and antiinflammatory. Further, it conjointly produces calming and sedative effects upon the nervous system, and is beneficial within the treatment of sleep disorder, anxiety and similar disorders. Moreover, the content of starch in the rhizome is said to be 40%. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most plants, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and nonfood industry. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent yearsfor their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. Moreover, Plants provide the predominant ingredients of medicines in most medical traditions. So, there is tremendous potential for the profitable industrial use of these medicinal plants and exploring them for further use. Keywords: Non-conventional food resources, Nymphaea alba, Rhizome.

Abstract

In the present study, a novel work on comparison of physico-chemical characterization and bacterial diversity of wheat straw compost and vermicomposting has been initiated in the tropical region. Wheat straw compost shows lesser pH, EC, TDS, Organic Carbon, Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus than vermicompost whereas there was an increase in Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and Electrical Conductivity and a drop in the pH, TDS and Organic Carbon of the vermicompost as the composting progressed from 0, 3, 10, 17, 24 and 31 days. Strains of Bacillus spp. and Thermoactinomycetes were screened from the wheat straw compost, which are ecologically important and have commercial potential for enzyme production. These strains were able to degrade cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin and exhibited cellulase activity. Enterobacter aerogenes, Micrococcus luteus and E.coli were isolated from the gut of Eudrilis eugeniae which help in the transformation of biodegradable waste materials into valuable compost.

Abstract

Microencapsulation has found great applications in food business. However, the technology remains aloof from being fully exploited. Microcapsules offer food processors a way to shield sensitive food ingredients, mask or preserve flavours and aromas and conversion of volatile food components into easy-handled solid ingredients (like powders, capsules etc). A number of naturally occurring and synthetic polymeric materials have been identified so far that possess the entrapping property and are categorised as GRAS materials. Numerous techniques have been developed for using these entrapping materials to encapsulate the sensitive food ingredients. Controlled release of the food ingredients at proper place and right time could be therefore a key practicality that may be provided by microencapsulation. With strictly fine-tuned and stabilized release characteristic, this method adds worth to the merchandise. The areas of interest in this field include the development of alternative and inexpensive polymers that may be considered natural or mimic the properties of natural polymeric materials, like Gum Arabic, Gellan Gum, Gum Karaya, Gaur Gum and Gum Acacia. Limitations in many of the encapsulation techniques have occurred due to high value of raw materials and production. This review is effectively committed to the, properties of encapsulating agents along with the emphasis on different techniques used for encapsulation in the varied fields like food technology, pharmaceutical, commercial engineering and biotechnology.

Introduction

Environmental problems have come to the forefront as one of the most important issues in transport policy. For a number of pollutants the road transport sector is one of the most significant contributors to environmental pollution. Vehicular emissions have been identified as one of the major contributors in deteriorating air quality in the urban centers. The problem has further been compounded by the concentration of large number of vehicles and comparatively high motor vehicle/population ratios in these cities. Substantial SPM, RSPM CO₂ and No_x are emitted. The problem of air pollution has assumed serious proportion in some of the major metropolitan cities of India. Therefore, CPCB has 296 monitoring stations all over India covering major cities.

The air pollution situation in most of the cities is still far from satisfactory. In India the major air pollution reason is automotive smoke and smoke from industries. New channels are also publishing pollution levels in selected metropolitan cities. The most polluted city in Asia is Pune. The SPM and RSPM levels are displayed at various squares to create awareness among the masses.

Smaller cities like Nanded, Parbhani and Yavatmal are not covered under National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) scheme of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The National Ambient Air Quality Standards for suspended particulate matters (SPM) are based on gravimetric measurement. Standards for Respirable suspended particulate matters (RSPM) are also based on gravimetric measurement. The development in terms of number of vehicles and building construction has also reached at the doors of these cities and towns. Nanded city having population of 5.5 lakhs has total number of Auto rickshaws more than 5,000. In the present study, Nanded city has been selected to check particulate matters and gaseous pollutants. Since, the city is one of the important Pilgrimage and commercial centre.

Introduction
A study protocol tool is a very important comprehensive document that deliberately outlines the whole research rationale design and plan for the successful execution of the epidemiological/ an experimental/ a clinical study. It serves as a blueprint for how the study will be conducted, ensuring consistency, transparency, and adherence to ethical guidelines. The document contains the background information available in literatures on the basis of which the researchers plan to conduct the study with objectives that will answer research related questions with ensuring adherence to ethical standards.
Basic Elements of a Study Protocol
The study protocol includes different components including background Information available in literature for research plan, objectives or purpose of conducting the research, explanation of the study design, selection and exclusion of subjects, treatment of subjects, assessment of outcome safety and efficacy. The purpose of conducting research includes questions like why the study needs to be done and what will be its relevance to scientific society or environment. To achieve these objectives the researchers, design their research work for proper execution of research objectives. The study which is to be designed has structured framework for researchers to answer their research questions and obtain reliable and valid results. The study design not only helps the researcher in learning technical skills but also discovering the creative voice (planning and execution). The study design includes different methods, processes and necessary resources for accomplishment of research problems. The study design also incorporates the methods of data collection and statistical analysis which meets the requirements of desired outcome. The implementation of an appropriate study design guarantees a methodical and exacting research process, resulting in more precise findings and the appropriate type of analysis to address the research-related queries. This makes the conclusions more reliable and legitimate. By ensuring that the data are reliable, repeatable, and validated, a well-designed study contributes to the advancement of knowledge. Additionally, it helps to control biases and confounding variables that could affect the results and helps to clarify the methodology of the study, which

(Method of Cocimano and Leng, 1966; Conrad, 1972; Varady & Harmeyer, 1972)
Hypothesis

The validity of measuring urea kinetics using a single dose of ¹⁴C-urea and using urinary excretion as a sampling system is based on specific assumption:

    1.    There is a rapid equilibration of ¹⁴C-urea with the endogenous urea pool following infusion. This pool is conceived to be a measure of all body compartments permeable to urea and in equilibrium with the plasma urea pool. 

    2.    Experimental animals are metabolically maintained in a steady state during the test period and metabolic breakdown of urea is random.

    3.    Specific radioactivity for urinary urea is proportional to the dilution of replenishment and simultaneous depletion rate of the urea pool.

    4.    That the metabolic parameters of urea are correctly measured.

7.1. Summary and Conclusion
In its recent move to attaining sustainable development goals through revamping agriculture, ICAR has focused on achieving health and nutritional status through agriculture. In doing this a database and quality information on health, hygiene and nutrition of rural women have become an imperative. Health, hygiene and nutrition are organically connected to each other. One cannot be achieved without the others. The present study has delved into the complex interactions and interrelationship between a set of 13 exogenous variables and another set of 5 consequent variables. A score of 70 rural women have been selected from Bilkumari village of Nadia district by following both random and non-random sampling methods. The stepwise regression analysis analyses for different dependent variables depict that the variables family size (x3), income per year (x4), distance from work place (x6), height (x7), weight (x8), BMI (x9), hip circumference (x12), waist to hip ratio (x13) have been recorded as to exert substantive functional impact on health, hygiene and nutrition of rural women. The factor analysis elicits the fact that instead of 18 exogenous and consequent variables together there have been 4 factors as extracted by calculating the factor loading. These factors are- health ecology, physical status, family ecology and strategic location. Sometimes we are moving in a wrong direction by concluding that if food and calorie are made available for the rural women, the health and nutrition will be achieved. The study has identified that unless proper understanding of health, hygiene, nutrition and health hazards is being build up, no external supply and services can solve the problem of malnutrition and health hazards. Thus, the study has generated huge pool of policy implications after being supported by plethora of far evidences, the output of this empirical research.

The contribution of dairy sector in the Indian economy has tremendous impact on the country’s GDP. India being the world’s highest milk producing country, dairy industry has a major role in changing the twin problem of the nation that is poverty and unemployment. Dairy sector also involves the under privileged group, especially the dairy farm women. There are many success stories regarding the life changing experiences gained by the farm women, who had taken dairy farming as a means to sustain their livelihood. In the area of gender equality, dairy sector has proved to be a women centric enterprise. Most of the activities pertaining to dairy farming are mostly carried out by the farm women. The dairy farming activities carried out by the farm women are tedious and in major cases their contribution remains unnoticed. They are usually carrying out activities, where most of their energy is drained, resulting in drudgery. Matters related to decision making, their opinion about adopting new technologies, starting an enterprise are not given importance by their family members. This leads to a greater setback in the emergence of success of dairy sector. Therefore, empowerment of farm women in dairy sector is one of the important criteria for the dairy industry to reach a greater height and for overall development of nation.

Abstract

Drying remained at the centre stage since the initiation of the food processing due to its promise to preserve agricultural products economically and add functionality to a food product unlike other thermal as well as non-thermal food processing operations. However, many existing drying techniques have their own limitations like nutrient loss, damage of the organoleptic quality, high cost etc. Therefore, research for better drying technologies is going on. Supercritical drying (SCD) is one such technology which utilizes higher dissolving power of super critical fluids (SCFs) to dry food products. The current chapter illustrates the mechanism of SCD as well as current state-of-art and promise of the drying technology. Also, some modelling approach of SCD has been included in the discussion to facilitate new designs and optimization of SCD for various food products.

Introduction
 
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the functional foods because they can provide physiological benefits additional to nutritional and energetic, as for instance, antihypertensive, antioxidant or anti-inflammatory [1]. A functional food can be defined as a food that produces a beneficial effect in one or more physiological functions, increases the welfare and/or decreases the risk of suffering a particular disease. Furthermore, new types of products, derived from food, called nutraceuticals have recently been developed. These products, usually employed as food supplements, are marketed as tablets and pills, and can provide important health benefits.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) is an advanced extraction technology that provides an efficient and comparatively sustainable alternative to conventional solvent-based extraction. This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of supercritical fluids and explains the mechanism by which desirable compounds can be selectively extracted from food materials. It examines the use of SFE for recovering aroma compounds, essential oils, flavours, pigments, colours, antimicrobial compounds and valuable bioactive substances. Particular emphasis is placed on obtaining high-purity extracts while minimizing toxic solvent residues. The chapter also discusses industrial food applications, process advantages and limitations, highlighting the potential of SFE for developing cleaner, efficient and value-oriented food-processing and ingredient-recovery systems.

Abstract

Drying is a very important unit operation in food processing. Being an energy intensive unit operation, drying process demands improvement to make it energy efficient. Beside this operating conditions used in drying affect product quality substantially; however, traditional dryers do not allow enough flexibility to meet quality requirements for several products. This has resulted in development of number of new drying techniques, to cope with both energy efficiency and product quality.

Introduction

Different dairy development programmes are working in various parts of the country. But the dairy development programmes which are confined only to the production activities can not give the best results unless they are supported by the marketing facilities and other infrastructure.

Need for Estimation of Milk Production Potential

Estimation about the milk production potential of any region is required for establishing milk processing plant and helps in making the planning and policy for developing marketing infrastructure in that area. In fact the marketed surplus depends on the marketing facility available in the region. If there are marketing facilities in the area like good cooperative societies are operating in the region, and good prices are offered to the milk producers which covers their cost of production and margins, the marketed surplus is bound to be higher than that of the regions where marketing facilities are not existing.

Introduction

Climate change represents a threat not only to the existence of individual species, but also to the genetic diversity hidden within them. The finding promises to complicate assessments of how climate change will affect biodiversity, as well as conservationists’ task in preserving it.

Climate change comes as an additional factor affecting a livestock sector that is already highly dynamic and facing many challenges. Important objectives of AnGR management include ensuring that AnGR are effectively deployed to meet these challenges (i.e. are well matched to the production environments in which they are kept) and that the genetic diversity needed to adapt production systems to future changes is maintained. Climate change is likely to create a number of problems in many areas of animal husbandry (housing, feeding, health care, etc.) and threaten the sustainability of many livestock production systems and their associated AnGR. At the same time, many of the specific challenges associated with climate change (high temperatures, disruptions to feed supplies, disease outbreaks, etc,) as well as the general unpredictability it brings to the future of the livestock sector, highlight the importance of retaining diverse genetic options for the future. The upper critical temperature of dairy cattle is lower than other livestock species (Wathes et al.,1983).

Introduction

Gastro-intestinal parasites are considered as the 'silent killers' and remain hidden or undiagnosed by the livestock owners or veterinarians as the infected animals manifest meagre clinical signs. These parasites often have detrimental effects on the growth and development of animals where they can potentiate mortality especially among young, weak or nutritionally compromised animals. They negatively impact animal health in terms of reduced weight gain, anorexia, digestive disturbance, impaired reproductive performance, condemnation of affected organs, mortality in infected animals and ultimately affect animal production, contributing to huge economic losses to the livestock owners. At present, chemotherapy is the most practical and widely practiced approach to curb these infestations. But frequent and indiscriminate use of anthelmintics imposes a threat on the sustainability of current control measures. Thus, there is an urgent need for incorporation of alternate control approaches while designing our worm control programs, so that we can reduce the usage of anthelmintics and prolong their effectiveness. The effectiveness or success of any worm control strategy is evaluated based on integrated parameters like the ultimate goal of increasing production, minimizing risks regarding drug resistance and considering consumer's concerns about health and environment-associated problems. In general, gastro-intestinal nematode control strategies can target either the parasite population inside the host or the free-living stages of parasites in the environment. Here, we are discussing some of the components of sustainable control measures for these parasites in detail.

Abstract

Airflow drying persists as the main dehydration operation. Indeed, the high expense of freeze-drying in term of equipment cost and energy consumption considerably restricts its use and confines its applications to high added value products (pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, etc.). However, airflow drying undergoes fundamental problems such as low operation performance, poor product quality and short reliability of the equipment. The time of drying is long; particularly at the end of the operation, which implies crucial energy consumption. The poor quality of the end product is related to thermal degradation and in particular to the compactness of texture as a result of the phenomena of shrinkage and case hardening. Another main problem common to all drying operations, including freeze-drying, is the safety of the end products. Swell-drying is defined as an operation that combines optimized hot air drying with instant controlled pressure controlled texturing. The improvement of texture, the preservation of sensory and nutritional quality, the possibility of manufacturing expanded granule powders and the reduction of drying time and energy consumption allow considering swell-drying as the most relevant drying process.