eChapters

India is bestowed by nature with a vast livestock resources comprising of 190 million cattle, 108 million buffalo, 135.17 million goats, 65.06 million sheep, 10.29 million pigs, 729.2 million poultry, 0.29 million mithun and 0.07 million yak (Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, 2014). The livestock sector is an important segment of agriculture and contributes nearly 25.6 percent of value in agriculture, fishing and forestry sector. The total share of livestock in GDP of India is 4.11 percent and meat is an important sector to generate foreign revenue by export. The share can further be extended by utilization of animal by-products because it is a sector of livestock neglected most. It is an old saying that ‘each and everything comes from animals can be utilized except last cry of animals’.

Blood serves as a significant byproduct within the meat industry, and the  efficient management of its collection and processing is crucial for improving profitability. The amount of blood obtained from slaughtered animals typically ranges from 5-7% of their live weight. Despite diligent efforts, a portion of blood is inevitably lost during the slaughtering process due to spillage and various other factors. To reduce these losses, several essential practices can be adopted:
1. Effective slaughterhouse design: Enhancing the layout and operational procedures within the slaughterhouse can significantly minimize spillage. This encompasses the implementation of well-structured drainage systems and collection vessels.
2. Training and protocols: It is essential to ensure that personnel are thoroughly trained in blood collection methods and strictly follow established protocols to mitigate accidental loss. This involves appropriate handling and prompt processing to prevent clotting and spoilage.
3. Technology: Allocating resources towards advanced blood collection and processing technologies can enhance operational efficiency. Automated systems facilitate the collection, filtration, and storage of blood while minimizing waste.
4. Regular maintenance: Maintaining equipment and facilities in optimal condition is vital to prevent leaks and other complications that may result in blood loss.
5. Storage and processing: After collection, blood must be processed promptly to prevent coagulation. Efficient cooling and storage practices are essential for preserving its quality and maximizing its potential for subsequent processing into products such as blood meal or plasma.
Collection of Blood
Blood may be collected directly into metal or plastic drums when animals are suspended for bleeding. In cases where the animals are slaughtered on the ground, small enamel or plastic bowls can be placed under the bleeding site to collect the blood, which can subsequently be transferred into a drum. The anticipated yield of blood from average tropical livestock is generally as follows:

Bones, horns, and hooves represent essential by-products of the slaughterhouse sector. Frequently obtained from deceased or fallen animals, these by-products possess considerable applications both independently and in the production of secondary goods. Their use fosters the development of secondary rural industries, consequently creating employment opportunities for individuals in rural regions. Furthermore, by fully utilizing these by-products, producers can secure higher prices for their livestock, while processors may experience
enhanced profitability. Effective management of these by-products could also play a role in reducing the costs associated with meat and meat products.
Composition of Bone
Bone constitutes roughly 15% of the weight of a dressed carcass, although this figure may fluctuate due to variables such as breed, age, fat content, and overall health. Generally, the percentage of bone in a dressed carcass is assessed as the weight of the bones in relation to the total weight of the carcass post-dressing.
The bone content varies as follows:
• Young cattle and buffalo: 15% to 20% of carcass weight.
• Older cattle and buffalo: 20% to 25% of carcass weight.
• Pigs: 15% to 20% of carcass weight.
• Sheep and goats: 25% to 30% of carcass weight.
• Poultry: 30% to 35% of carcass weight.

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

Abstract

The present study was conducted to develop ready to eat extruded snack food based on germinated flour of wheat, Bengal gram and green gram. A Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) for five variables at five levels was used for experimental combinations and optimization of the process parameters. Experimental design with green gram flour (5 to 20%) and bengal gram flour (1535%) in wheat flour, moisture content (14-18%), screw speed (200-300 rpm) and barrel temperature (126-134°C) as independent variables having 32 different combinations of snack formulations that were studied using response surface methodology to investigate the effect of these variables on product responses (Lateral expansion, bulk density, Water absorption index, water solubility index and sensory characteristics). Sensory analysis was carried out of all extrudates for texture, color and overall acceptability. Multiple regression equations were obtained to describe the effects of each variable on product responses. The optimum operating conditions for development of germinated wheat, green gram and Bengal gram flour extrudate were 132°C of barrel temperature, 275 rpm of screw speed, 17 % offeed moisture, 6.5% of green gram flour and 23.1% of Bengal gram flour. The responses predicted by the software for these optimum process conditions resulted lateral expansion of 169.59%, bulk density, 0.263g/cm³; water solubility index, 19.08; water absoption index, 13.88g/g; and overall acceptability value of 7.38.

Animal organs and glands play a crucial role in both nutrition and medicine. These organs encompass the brain, heart, liver, lungs, spleen, tongue, pancreas, udder, stomach, uterus, testes, thymus, kidneys, parathyroid, adrenal glands, and ovaries. Some of these are consumed as food, while others find application in medical practices. Glands, constituting approximately 0.28% of an animal’s total weight, are regarded as valuable by-products of meat production and are increasingly utilized in contemporary medicine for the extraction of beneficial substances. The secretions from both endocrine and exocrine glands are essential for the growth and functioning of the body, with hormones derived from these glands being employed to address deficiencies and serve as therapeutic agents.
1. Human consumption: The majority of glands are ingested alongside meat; however, in the case of cattle and buffalo, ovaries and testes are typically discarded, while other glands are consumed. In smaller animals, it is common to eat all glands with the exception of the ovaries. The liver is especially prized for its rich nutritional profile, being abundant in vitamins A, D, and B complex, which are advantageous for conditions such as poor vision, bone development, and anaemia.
2. Medicinal uses: Glands are responsible for producing hormones that offer significant medicinal advantages, including the treatment of anaemia, diabetes, and various other health issues. They also contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics in both males and females. Extracts derived from these glands are invaluable for restoring hormonal deficiencies within the body. The incorporation of animal glands into pharmaceutical manufacturing represents a notable advancement in modern science. In Western nations, there has been a
concentrated effort on the efficient collection and utilization of these glands, acknowledging their economic significance for slaughterhouses and the meatpacking sector.

The intestines of domesticated animals, which are a byproduct of slaughterhouses, are employed in numerous applications. Intestines that function as food containers are referred to casings. Non-consumable uses encompass catgut, strings for musical instruments and rackets, along with various other specialized applications. Additionally, intestines can be ingested following meticulous cleaning and cooking with spices. Among these applications, sausage casings yield the highest profit. Different nations exhibit distinct preferences for sausages, and these preferences frequently determine the varieties of casings utilized.
In addition to intestines, casings can also be sourced from weasands (oesophagus), urinary bladders, stomachs, and rectums. Although artificial casings made from plastic materials and hydro-cellulose are prevalent in Western nations, natural animal casings continue to be in high demand due to their distinctive properties. Natural casings, which are obtained from the intestines or other parts of animals such as sheep, pigs, or cows, undergo processing to become edible and are utilized in the production of sausages and other processed meats. They are esteemed for their elasticity, enabling them to conform to the shape of the sausage filling, and they play a crucial role in enhancing the flavour and texture of the final product. Natural casings, are frequently favored for traditional or artisanal sausages because of their authentic origin and their capacity to improve the taste and visual appeal of the sausages.

Introduction

Whey is the serum or watery part of the milk that remains after separation of curd that result from the acid or proteolytic enzyme mediated co-agulation of milk. It is major by product of dairy industries manufacturing products like channa, paneer, cheese and chakka (Sharma and Bhatia, 1999).The current world production of whey is estimated at about 165 million tones, in that cheese whey accounts for nearly 95 % of total whey. In India near about one million tonne of whey is annually derived, in that major source of whey is from the production of channa, paneer and shrikhand production. This is mostly thrown away as a waste which creates environmental pollution, also in that way about 70, 000 tonnes of Nutritious solids are lost (Puranik, 1999).

The poultry industry generates by-products that encompass all materials derived from farms and processing facilities that are not intended for human consumption. These by-products can be classified as either edible or inedible. The edible by-products primarily consist of tissues and bones extracted from poultry carcasses. Conversely, inedible by-products comprise hatchery waste, which includes infertile eggs, deceased embryos, dead chicks, and eggshells, as well as feathers, blood, offal, fat, and manure. These by-products are typically divided into three categories:
1. By-products from the production phase, which consist of litter and manure sourced from the farm.
2. By-products from hatcheries which include materials originating from the hatchery, such as the shells of hatched eggs, dead embryos, infertile eggs, and deceased chicks.
3. By-products from the poultry processing plant, which encompass blood, feathers, offal (including feet, heads, and intestinal tracts), condemned birds etc.
1. By-products from the production phase: Poultry litter and manure from caged layers are extensively utilized as a protein supplement in the diets of both poultry and livestock. Following sterilization and dehydration, poultry manure can be integrated into feed, containing approximately 27-29% protein. It can be incorporated into the diets of broilers at levels of up to 20% and layers at 25%. In addition to their application in animal feed, poultry manure and litter are valuable as a ‘surface dressing’ for agricultural fields. They function not only as effective fertilizers but also improve soil texture. One ton of deep litter yields approximately 29.48 kg of nitrogen (equivalent to 136.08 to 147.42 kg of ammonium sulphate), 20.41 kg of phosphorus (equivalent to 113.40 to 136.08 kg of ordinary superphosphate), and 20.41 kg of potash (equivalent to 45.34 kg of potassium), along with 6.80 kg of magnesium, 6.80 kg of sodium, and 27.21 kg of calcium. Furthermore, poultry manure is rich in trace elements such as boron, copper, iron, sulphur, and zinc.

Fat
• Utmost significant slaughterhouse byproduct is fat obtained from intestines, kidneys, channel and other offals
• Edible ox fat is rendered and the obtained product is called premier jus (higher grade fat) which is differentiated into oleo oil and oleo stearin
• If all edible ox fat is rendered, it is called dripping and it used for human consumption
• Inedible fat is used for soap manufacturing
• The highest value fat from pig is recovered from peritoneal lining (leaf fat), and the subsequent highest value recovered from back fat, mesentery and omentum
• Sheep fat is separated into oleo oil and oleo stearin because of its strong flavour
• Mutton fat is harder and its stearin content is more than ox or pig and therefore, it is applied on the top of meat paste glass jar as a protective layer
Rendering of edible fat
Three principal procedure of rendering of edible fat are:
i. Wet rendering
ii. Dry rendering
iii. Continuous low-temperature rendering

Air, water and land constitute our environment and these are technically known as atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere respectively. All these spheres together constitute the biosphere. In the biosphere, apart from human beings, plants, animals, birds, fishes, insects and microorganisms also exist. All these living beings get affected whenever a change, physical or chemical occurs in the biosphere. This change is termed as pollution and the agents that institute these changes are called pollutants. A kind of pollution that has come in to prominence more recently is radiation, causing environmental and health problems of immense magnitude. The radiation may either be natural like cosmic radiation from outer space and sun?s radiations or produced by disintegration of naturally occurring and manmade elements. Such radiation is not visible to our eyes, but can penetrate the body and do immense harm. Man and animals have been continually exposed to different sources of radiation. But the radiation levels were well within the tolerable limits in the past. Yet, since the mid 1970?s human activities have been changing the chemistry of atmosphere in a way that reduces the amount of ozone in the stratosphere which is responsible for protecting the living things from excessive amounts of ultraviolet radiation. Further, it is only after the advent of nuclear power stations that radiations increased to reach harmful levels. Though mankind has benefitted by harnessing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, one cannot deny the inherent dangers of radiation. Nuclear power plants no doubt help in the production of controlled electricity. However, a worldwide controversy is ragging over the existing nuclear power plants and setting up of new plants particularly since 1986 disaster of Chernobyl nuclear plant in Russia. A fire in the plant allowed massive amounts of radiation to be released into the atmosphere. This fall out drifted into the Scandinavia and Eastern Europe causing enormous damage to crop and livestock.

Introduction
The discovery of antibiotics and their subsequent use in combating infectious diseaseswas amedical breakthroughin the 20th century, as it completely changed the treatment approach to infections in general and bacterial infections in particular. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillin that started the started the so-called “golden age of antibiotic”. However, later in course of time the underuse, overuse and misuse of antibiotics in medical and veterinary practice led toemergence of drug-resistant pathogens resulting in phenomenon called antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In last few decades AMR has evolved silently and now threatening the human and animal health and has acquired the potential to be a next pandemic. AMR develops in a microorganism (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) when it accumulates genetic changes over time and fails to respond to antibiotic(s) leading to severe illness and mortality due to infection. Although, AMR is an evolutionary event occurring naturally in microbes, but inappropriate use of antibiotics in humans and animal medicine act as key driver to its spread. Global antibiotic consumption increased between 2016 and 2023, with total consumption rising by 16.3% to 34.3 billion defined daily doses (DDDs) in reporting countries and a projected 20.9% increase when extrapolated to nonreporting countries. World Health Organization (WHO) and other authorities have called for coordinated action to address antimicrobial resistance, a threat looming large on horizon. In 2021, there were an estimated 1.14 million deaths attributed directly to Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), with globally another 4.71 million deaths associated with AMR infections. This dataindicates a significant global health burden, with prophecy that AMR deaths could increase dangerously by 2050 if current trends continue. Global Action Plan (GAP) of the WHO highlights the importance of “One Health approach” calling for the joint action in human health, food production, animals and environmental sectors, to achieve better results. In the year 2015, the WHO initiated the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS)to collect, analyze and share AMR data received from all countries. The Global Action Plan on AMR lists five strategic objectives to contain AMR viz., 1. optimizing the use of antimicrobials, 2. preventing infections (including the use of vaccines), 3. strengthening surveillance and research, 4. improving awareness and understanding of AMR, and 5. investing in new medical products. Vaccines stimulate the body’s immune system to recognize and attack specific pathogens and thus can prevent AMR through several ways viz., 1. reduce the incidence of infections leading to reduction in morbidity and mortality, 2. vaccines can prevent secondary bacterial infections e.g. Streptococcus pneumoniae after an initial infection with influenza, 3. produce herd immunity, 4. Prevention of infections resulting in decrease in use of antibiotics that reduces development of AMR. Immunotherapeutics can both combat and be complicated by Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR). Other immunotherapies antibodies, and immune-boosting agents can directly fight AMR by preventing infections and reducing the need for antibiotics.

In its original concept, vaccination aims to mimic the development of naturally acquired immunity by inoculation of nonpathogenic but still immunogenic components of the pathogen in question, or closely related organisms. The term “vaccine” (from the Latin term “vacca,” meaning cow) was first coined by Edward Jenner to describe the inoculation of humans with the cowpox virus to confer protection against the related human smallpox virus and illustrates the close relationship between human and animal infectious disease sciences. The famous proverb saying ‘Prevention is better than cure’ implies perfectly to the vaccines. Vaccines have proven to be boon for animals which can be regard a potential weapons against infectious diseases caused mainly by bacteria and viruses. The major aims of veterinary vaccines are to improve the health and welfare of companion animals, increase production of livestock in a cost-effective manner, and prevent animal-to-human transmission from both domestic animals and wildlife. Vaccines have long been used to combat infectious disease; however the last decade has witnessed a revolution in the approach to vaccine design and development. Apart from improving animal health and productivity, veterinary vaccines have a significant impact on public health through reductions in the use of veterinary pharmaceuticals and hormones and their residues in the human food chain.

Abstract

Drying is an age old practice of food preservation. Removal of moisture from the food materials is usually carried out at atmospheric pressure and elevated temperature. In the presence of oxygen, drying can cause oxidation of some compounds leading to quality deterioration. Drying at higher temperature adds to the losses and can be responsible for enzymatic and non enzymatic browning, loss of aroma, nutrients, antioxidants, pigments etc. On the other hand, drying under sub atmospheric pressure helps in retaining the themosensitive compounds present in natural foods as drying can be accomplished in oxygen free environment. Under vacuum, evaporation of moisture can be possible at lower temperatures.

24.1 Introduction

Egg Products have gained great acceptance all over the world to-day as they offer advantage in labour saving and time in preparations, space saving and consistency in quality. There is also an an increase in consumer demand for a variety of preparations to suit their taste and purse. Today’s commercial bakeries, food processing plants and institutions use tremendous quantities of liquid bulk eggs, egg solids (dried egg) and frozen egg products for preparation of several convenient foods.

Abstract

Mango pulp is high in prebiotic dietary fibers vitamin c, polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins and dietary minerals. Mint leaves are known for its medicinal aromatic and flavorsome qualities. Mint act as powerful antioxidant, protecting the body against the formation of cancerous cells and is rich source of polyphenolic compounds. Tulsi also have antioxidant, adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and immune-enhancing properties. Honey is natural sweetener and has antiseptic and antibacterial properties. Medicinally, honey is non irritant promote rapid growth of healthy tissue and is useful in purities value, bed spores, skin and intestinal disorder, etc. Keeping in mind the beneficial effects of these raw materials, attempt was made to prepare value added drink from it, which may have medicinal value and good sensory acceptability with objective to prepare and evaluate the recipe for value added green mango-mint-tulsi beverage and to study the shelf life of the developed value added beverage. The formulation prepared with partial substitution of honey was more acceptable. Throughout the storage period, the squash prepared with honey scored more in flavor, taste, mouth-feel and overall acceptability than without honey. The cost of production without including labour, bottling and other overhead charges came out to be Rs. 34.5/L for squash without honey and Rs. 59.0/L for squash without honey.

In monetary terms, value-added’ per unit of the product is the margin between its selling price and cost of production. However, in the dairy and food industry, value addition refers to, extra, features of a product that are beyond the expectations of a consumer at little or no extra cost. In this context, the addition of value to milk can involve monetary value added to a liter of milk by turning it into milk products, enhancing the convenience of quality, shelf life, or health characteristics using processing and packaging interventions.

4.1. Conversion of Milk into Conventional Products

It is an age-old tradition to add value to milk by processing it into milk products. The primary aim was to increase the shelf life of milk that would otherwise be highly perishable. With inadequate facilities to preserve liquid milk fresh in the rural areas’ conversion of milk into a variety of milk products would be an ideal option to effectively preserve the huge quantities of milk procured during the flush season’ In the processing of milk products such as cream, butter, cheese and ghee, by-products such as skim milk, buttermilk, whey, and ghee residue are obtained’ Many of the dairy plants, particularly in India’ are usually confronted with the problem of by-products utilization, especially that of whey and ghee residue in an economical manner. Membrane separation processes have presented new possibilities for the production of newer intermediate products from dairy by-products that can be used for value addition in dairy and food industries.

This chapter introduces value addition as a means of converting eggs from a commodity into convenient, shelf-stable or specialized food products. It covers ready-to-eat eggs, hard-cooked eggs, pickled and marinated eggs, egg-based snacks, specialty products, emulsified products and mayonnaise. Region-specific and ethnic egg products of India are also discussed. The chapter introduces product development, sensory evaluation, packaging and retort processing. It emphasizes the commercial potential of value-added products while recognizing the associated requirements for food safety, processing control, market acceptance and appropriate packaging.

1.3 Dextrose

Sweets which include dextrose have different eating qualities to those made with sucrose and glucose syrup alone. Recipes should be balanced so that the sucrose to dextrose ratio achieves the required product texture.

The incorporation of dextrose will increase the likelihood that crystallization will occur either on store or during manufacture. Replacement usage levels for dextrose normally lie between 5% and 15% of the Sucrose content

Introduction

Incidence of ectoparasitism is on rise in the livestock population, impeding its production and performance. Those areas which were free of ectoparasites are now under great parasite load because of changing climatic conditions and global warming. Global warming has resulted in vectors shifting their habitats to temperate regions also. Ectoparasites are not only causing irritation to livestock by blood sucking and associated pruritus, they are serving as vectors for a variety of haemoprotozoan and rickettsiae leading to far-flung complications. Major ectoparasites infesting ruminants are ticks, lice, fleas and flies. Though ticks and flies are proclaimed as notorious for transmission of haemoprotozoans, now a days evidences are on rise reporting the role of fleas and lice as vectors for various haemoprotozoan and viral diseases. The need of the hour is to explore more and more ectoparasites to identify their vector potential and their effective control measures. While addressing the ectoparasitism in livestock, another major problem arises with their control. Most ectoparasitism is of seasonal nature at least in temperate areas, while it is a round the year phenomenon in tropics. Only very few compounds are available as ectoparasiticides and used by clinicians, and has resulted in onset of resistance among ectoparasites. New compounds need to be developed and marketed to counter this and at the same time it should be environment friendly also. Lest their rising use can lead to eradication of friendly fauna which can be more detrimental to the ecosystem. Now a days researches are focusing on the development of integrated tick/vector control measures which are making use of minimal chemical compounds and utilizing the synergistic application of farming techniques/practices and cultivating plants of acaricidal properties. In this era of pandemic, zoonotic nature of various haemoprotozoan/rickettsiae affecting livestock is also of concern to the mankind. So, they need to be addressed at the earliest considering their impact. The susceptibility to ectoparasitism varies from animal to animal.