eChapters

Introduction

Water resource is imperative for the survival of all life-forms on planet earth and defines the limits of sustainable development, without any substitute. Only 2.5% of all water on the earth is freshwater, and of that, around 0.5% is accessible through ground or surface water supplies. The increasing world population, industrialization and climate change is putting additional pressure on water resources. This is also true for livestock sector. As per prediction equations, the requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m³ in 2000 to 2.8 billion m³in 2025 and 3.2 billion m³ in 2050 (Hedge, 2012).

The balance between humanity's demands and the quantity available is already precarious (Karin et al, 2002). Additionally, climate change poses a serious threat to water resources as the climate system and the hydrological cycles are intimately linked, and any variability in climate affects the hydrological cycle. The World Bank report on the water and climate change inter-linkages also reiterated that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water (Alavian et al., 2009).

Water Scarcity Issues
The world is running out of clean water. The subsurface water table decreases and surface runoff rises as a result of deforestation. The amount of water stored underground is decreasing as wells are being dug deeper and deeper. As a result of desertification and deforestation, perennial rivers are turning seasonal. There is not enough potable drinking water because of abuse and overuse.
Conserving Water
• In certain situations, manipulating plants, harvesting water, and other techniques might increase the availability of water supplies.
• Water use reduction achieved by the application of water efficiency or conservation techniques; alternatively,
• Better techniques for managing water can either decrease or increase the useful use of water.
• Any activity, behavioral modification, tool, technology, or better design or procedure used to lower water loss, waste, or use is referred to as a water conservation method.
• One method of conserving water is water efficiency.
Among the Objectives of Water Conservation Initiatives
• The goal of sustainability is to guarantee that water extracted from an ecosystem will not be lost faster than it naturally replaces itself for future generations.
• The pumping, delivering, and treating of water results in energy conservation.
• Habitat conservation includes limiting the amount of water used by humans, which lessens the need to construct new dams and other water diversion infrastructure while also preserving freshwater habitats for nearby species and migratory waterflow.

Introduction
In the global perspective, water contamination is a significant issue. Every day, it is the cause of almost 14,000 deaths. The most valuable natural resource on Earth is water, which makes up more than 70% of its surface.
Definitions
• The term “water pollution” refers to the contamination of water bodies by human activity, which can be detrimental to the plants and organisms that call thesem bodies of water home. It can be characterized as any alteration in the quality of water brought about by human activity that makes it less suitable for any of its positive uses, actual or potential. Excess of any substance or heat that could endanger people, animals, or aquatic lifeMan’s actions alter the quality or composition of water, either directly or indirectly, making it unfit for any purpose.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Point source pollution, which is defined as pollution having a distinct source and point of entry into the water, making it easy to identify. It describes impurities that find their way into a waterway by a covert channel, like a ditch or pipe. For instance, contaminants include metals and organics in municipal and industrial discharge pipelines.

Riboflavin or Vitamin B₂
Introduction

Riboflavin (synonymous with lactoflavin, vitamin G and vitamin B2) is a yellow green, fluorescent, water soluble pigment widely distributed in plant and animal cells. The organic formula of riboflavin is (6, 7-dimethyl)-9-(D,1-ribtyl)-iso-alloxazine. The empirical formula is C₁₇H₂₀N₄O₆. Riboflavin is very sensitive to both visible and ultraviolet light. All manipulations with riboflavin or riboflavin containing materials should be carried out in subdued light or in low actinic glassware. Even subdued daylight may be destructive but artificial light of an intensity of 6 candles per squarefeet or less is permissible. Irradiation of alkaline solutions yields lumiflavin (6, 7, 9-trimethylis-alloxazine) and in acid solutions lumich rome (6.7 dimethyl alloxazine) is formed, which is characterised by a blue fluorescence. One of the distinguishing properties of riboflavin is its yellow-green fluorescence in neutral solutions which reaches a maximum at pH 6.7 to 6.8.

Water Requirements

Dairy plant requires large quantities of water on a daily basis for processing and cleaning purposes. Normally the specific water consumption ranges from 1000-5000 litres per 1000 litres of milk processed. The actual requirement can vary between dairies and is a function of 
    a)    Manufacturing process or manufacturing profile.
    b)    Auxiliary processes such as steam generation, design of the refrigeration processes and extent of social services.
    c)    Multiple use/reuse.
Water is a very valuable basic natural resource  and needs careful consumption. The water supply system in a dairy plant should be designed in such a way that consumption for each manufacturing department and auxiliary processes can be determined. This makes it possible to influence water consumption directly, and major losses can be determined very rapidly.

Output of dairy products from animals, output from the poultry, goats, sheep, exotic birds, animal growth, their living environments and diseases affecting them, are known to be governed by weather conditions. Development of quantitative climate-animal relationships and efficient utilization of daily weather data for monitoring the various aspects, continues to be a significant research priority. Traditionally the major climatic factors on which attention has been focused are: temperature, humidity, solar radiation and length of day. The effects of these climatic elements on reaction of animal physiological parameters have been studied by measurements of (a) animal?s ability to prevent heat loss by such means as increased evaporative cooling from the body surface, (b) its ability to reduce heat production by lowering its metabolic rate through more efficient energy utilization (c) its ability to put up with a rise in body temperature or with the consequences of compensatory reactions. Experiments are usually done in climate chambers since field measurements often involve difficulties of interpretation in separating out the effects of climate from those of nutrition. Water consumption, water intake, insensible perspiration (diffusion moisture, different from the moisture which is actively secreted), protein intake, intra- and extra cellular volumes, plasma and blood volumes, body temperature, respiratory activity etc., of animals are all known to be affected in relation to changes in air temperature and humidity. Airflow also is an adjutant factor since it affects temperature and humidity. Significant seasonal changes have also been frequently recorded. These in turn, have profound effect on output of milk yield and several other animal products. Development of predictive techniques for assessment of milk yield or other products had been recognized as a thrust area, so as to develop suitable and viable strategies for storage; transport, marketing and distribution of several livestock products. Several gross relationships between climate and its influence on physiological and biochemical aspects of animal behaviour have been worked out in the past on seasonal basis but a more intensive study on short period stress effects on the output products in relation to prediction of output is the need of the hour. For pursuing research on these aspects, an appropriate understanding of the specific meaning and use of terminology such as ?thresholds?, ?optima?, ?normal?, ?extreme events? in more detail is considered appropriate. Methods of analysis also need to be addressed and evolved.

One of biggest challenges facing animal science is to increase the production in the context of climate change. Animal performance may be limited by adverse climatic focus (Sejian et al., 2010; Sejian et al., 2012). The economic impact of climate changes in relation to livestock production are widely reported, and several losses are predicted if current management systems are not modified to reflect the shift in climate. Climate change poses formidable challenge to the development of livestock sector in India (Sejian et al., 2013; Naqvi et al., 2013). Global warming could increase water, shelter and energy requirement of livestock for meeting projected milk demands. The anticipated rise in temperature between 2.3 and 4.8°C over the entire country together with increased precipitation resulting from climate change is likely to aggravate the heat stress in dairy animals, adversely affecting their productive and reproductive performance, and hence reducing the total area where high yielding dairy cattle can be economically reared. A preliminary estimate indicates that global warming is likely to lead to a loss of 1.6 million tonnes in milk production in India by 2020.

Seasonal variations in climatic conditions impact the availability of feed in the livestock (Sejian et al., 2014; Bagath et al., 2016). Over and above the effect of seasonal variations that cause considerable economic hardship, it is the unforeseen and unexpected periods of inclement and severe weather conditions which exacerbate the gross economic losses in livestock industry (Sejian and Srivastava, 2010; Sejian et al., 2010). In addition to mortalities of livestock associated with severe climatic conditions, reductions in reproductive and productive performances generate sizeable economic setback. Impressive advances in research have been made to assess the impact of climatic stressors on the physiological and dynamic responses of livestock (Shaji et al., 2015; Maurya et al., 2015). At the same time livestock managers and farmers continue to search for management options which can alleviate and reduce the effects of severe weather on livestock performance and productivity. This chapter will address in detail the impact of environmental stresses on livestock production and reproduction. These attempts will help the scientific fraternity to develop appropriate mitigation strategies to improve ruminant livestock production in these agro-ecological zones. This might pave way to improve the livelihood securities of poor and marginal farmers of this tropical environment via an appropriate universal research agenda.

The sole science of meteorology is to deal with weather forecasting while livestock advisory based on weather forewarning is dealt with multidisciplinary approach in the field of livestock meteorology for the benefit of the livestock farmers. In this context, the current status of livestock advisory based on medium range weather forecasting is highlighted so that the tools for livestock advisory can be initiated and developed by the concerned for the benefit of livestock farmers in similar lines. Information on weather forecasting is used in various society linked sectors and animal husbandry component is one of them (Fig. 17.1).

Introduction

In a research laboratory, we frequently need weigh chemicals and prepare different solutions of varying strength, as per the requirements. Accuracy in weighing and preparation of solution, with respect to weight/volume and strength, determines the success of experiment. In turn, the accuracy depends on weighing of solid chemical and/or measuring the volume of liquid chemical/making up the volume. In this Chapter, weighing of chemicals using appropriate weighing balance, preparation of solutions of different strength, their dilution, and precautions while preparing will be discuss in brief.

Weighing of Chemical

The primary method to determine the amount of chemicals to be used is weighing the chemical by using a balance.

In general, there are two types of balances to weigh chemicals in a laboratory:

1. Standard laboratory balance

2. Analytical balance

Standard Laboratory Balance

Generally, a standard laboratory balance is used for weighing a chemical when an error of ±0.02 g is acceptable. It is also used for pre-weighing, where approximate mass needs to be determined. Precise mass of the chemical is then determined using an analytical balance. Following are the steps in using a weighing balance in a laboratory.

All farmed animals are transported at some stage in their lives, sometimes to places where food is more readily available, sometimes to a different owner or a different place of keeping and sometimes to slaughter. The handling, loading, transporting and unloading of animals can have very substantial effects on their welfare. Wherever   poor welfare associated with the transport of animals is prevented, there is an immediate financial advantage because mortality rates and carcass downgrading are reduced. The attitude towards animals has major consequences on animal welfare during transportation. Therefore, laws and codes of practice can also have significant effects on animal welfare during transport. In order to produce guidelines that can be used to prevent or minimise poor welfare in animals during transport, it is necessary to be aware of the biological functioning of the animals concerned and the attitudes and actions of the people involved in the handling and transport procedures.

In India, the cow is a worshipped as symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, altruistic giving and full of earthly life. Cows are traditionally treated as a sacred animal. Dairy products are extensively used in India and are one of the most essential nutritional components of meals.
 
The laws governing cattle slaughter is shown in entry 15 of the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, meaning that State legislatures have exclusive powers to legislate the prevention of slaughter and preservation of cattle. Some States allow the slaughter of cattle with restrictions like a “fit-for-slaughter” certificate which may be issued depending on factors like age and gender of cattle, continued economic viability etc. Others completely ban cattle slaughter, while there is no restriction in a few states. Prohibition of cow slaughter is a Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Article 48 of the Constitution.

Introduction

Wet ashing is suitable for the determination of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, K, Na, Se and Zn in biological samples and may be applicable to the determination of other elements as well.

The organic matter of the sample is oxidized with concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acids. The acids are partially removed by volatilization and the solube mineral constituents remain dissolved in nitric acid. Any silica present is dehydrated and made insoluble.

Introduction

Wet ashing is suitable for the determination of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, K, Na, Se and Zn in biological samples and may be applicable to the determination of other elements as well.

The organic matter of the sample is oxidized with concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acids. The acids are partially removed by volatilization and the solube mineral constituents remain dissolved in nitric acid. Any silica present is dehydrated and made insoluble.

When certain disease-causing bacteria or pathogens contaminate food, they can cause foodborne illness, often called “food poisoning”. Foods that are contaminated may not look, taste or smell any different from foods that are safe to eat. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria and Escherichia coli are common bacteria causing foodborne illness. Some foodborne illnesses are mild where most people get better within a few days, but illness can sometimes be more severe and fatal. Bacillus cereus can form heat resistant spores. On cooking the food with these spores the heat resistant toxin is left at room temperature. Reheating or lightly cooking the food does not destroy these toxins. Most types of foodborne illnesses cause symptoms like nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, abdominal pain and cramps. Fever and/or the presence of blood or mucus in the stool are signs of bacterial infection that may require a medical consultation. Proper food handling is vital to prevent most foodborne illnesses and diseases. WHO has given keys towards safer food which should be followed. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances, causes more than 200 diseases which range from diarrhoea to cancers. Foodborne and waterborne diarrhoeal diseases kill around 2 million people worldwide annually, including many children. A single foodborne bacterium can grow into more than two million bacteria in just seven hours under the right conditions. Foodborne pathogen called Listeria sp. can survive and sometimes grow on foods being stored in the refrigerator. Hepatitis A virus can cause long-lasting liver disease and spreads typically through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce. It is estimated that more than 250 million people worldwide suffer food allergies. The boiling temperature (smoke point) of cooking oil is above 200 °C. The boiling point of water is 100 °C.

According to the World Health Day (WHO,2015) food contamination happens when food are corrupted with another substance. It can happen during the process of production, transportation, packaging, storage, sales and cooking process. The contamination can be physical, chemical and biological. Faulde et al., (2013) studied the infection caused to patients by mothfly

It is a discipline of science that describes handling, preparation and storage of food that can prevent food-borne diseases. When there are two or more cases of a similar illness from the ingestion of the same common food it is known as a food-borne disease outbreak (FSN, 2018). In order to avoid potential health hazards, food safety is very important. This needs safety between industry, market and the consumer. For food safety the labelling on food material is vital. This includes the origin of food, steps taken for food hygiene, food additives, pesticide residues, policies on biotechnology, food guidelines for the management of governmental import, export inspection and certification systems for foods. The food should be safe in the market with safe preparation and delivery of the food for the consumer. Foegeding et al., (1996) have done an assessment of risk factors with food borne pathogens.Warnock et al., (2007) have reported intervention to food safety.

When pathogens are in the food they may be transmitted to the consumer. It may result in an illness or death of the person or other animals. The pathogens include bacteria, viruses, molds and fungus. These multiply in the food medium. Joon et al., (2012) have found pathogenic bacteria in meat products of Korea. The developed countries have high intricate standards for the preparation of food; however, in the developing countries there are less standards and enforcement of the standards which are followed. Apart from food another major source of infection is water, which is very critical in spreading many diseases. It is possible to prevent food poisoning if good water is used for all purposes. However, it becomes difficult as in the food supply chain a large number of persons are involved apart from the fact that pathogens can be introduced into foods no matter how much precautions are taken. Cowden (2000) has studied the notification on food poisoning to improve health. Frenkel et al., (2015) studied the amount of wastes from food processing industries.

A process control system that identifies the hazardous points in the food production process is known as HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point). It puts into place many stringent actions to prevent any hazards from occurring. In any food process if there is strict monitoring and controlling steps, the chances for hazards are minimum. Today, HACCP is an integral part of modern food industry that identifies and controls the major food risks. These are like microbiological, chemical and physical contaminants. These can also be practiced at home scale by checking proper storage, handling, cooking and cleaning procedures. These steps have resulted in industries taking greater responsibility for and controlling the food safety risk factors. This helps in better consumer protection, agriculture, the food processing industries and promotes domestic and international food trade.

The temperature of food storage is important. Below 4⁰C the food pathogens do not grow. Above 60⁰C some colonies begin to die. However, almost all die at 71⁰C. How hot is the food served is important for food safety. The size of the piece is important to how quickly it will cook all the way through. The smaller the piece the faster it will cook. Large or thicker pieces take a longer time to be cooked. Otherwise cooking for a longer time is better so that pathogenic microorganisms do not grow. In case of a thicker piece the color must be checked inside to outside after cooking which should be consistent. If the meat has the bone, check the color/temperature closest to the bone in the thickest part. In case of meat the contamination usually gets introduced while butchering and the practices used. The street food on a cart is perhaps the most contaminated as it has some level of bacteria in it. The meat in the decorated malls also has pathogenic bacteria. The environment plays a very pivotal role which can recontaminate the food even after proper cooking. The amount of harmful pathogens keeps growing in number with the passage of time. Fresh from the grill is the best, an hour or two is not ideal, half a day or overnight could make a person sick. Due to the reason that consumers do not know the time and temperature of cooking it is important to eat food which is freshly prepared.

Definition

‘Whipping agent’ are a wide variety of materials to describe their role in confectionery manufacture as a means of holding air introduced into a product, to produce a uniform dispersion of air cells within the confection leading to a lower specific weight and considerable modification to the texture.

Stable foams cannot be obtained by whipping high concentration sugar solutions without the presence of a ‘surface-active’ agent.

Many types of proteins have whipping properties and those used in the sweet industry are:

(a) Egg albumen, crystal powdered and spray dried;

(b) High Bloom gelatine and gelatine hydrolysates;

(c) Skimmed milk in spray dried form;

(d) Whey, or whey in a mixture with skimmed milk;

This chapters covers wide range of topics like taxonomy of wild animals, difference criteria among the species identification, feeding and nutritional requirements of wild and captive zoo animals, housing standards in zoo, habitats and behavioral changes and its management, environmental impact on captive animals, acts and zoo regulations governing wild and captive animals, handling and restraining of wild/captive animals, Purpose of restraining,  techniques of immobilization and complications associated with the immobilization. Various national and international organizations working

This chapter introduces the recovery and productive utilization of materials generated throughout the wool value chain. It examines wool grease and lanolin, suint salts, noil, short fibre, low-grade wool, waste wool and pelts. Particular attention is given to converting keratin-rich wool waste into biomedical materials, cosmetics, fertilizers, soil conditioners, filtration materials, bioplastics and composites. Insulation, horticultural applications and oil-spill sorbents are also discussed within a circular-economy framework that aims to minimize waste and increase resource efficiency.

This chapter introduces the principles of colouration and finishing of wool fibres and fabrics. It examines the relationship between keratin chemistry and dye uptake and discusses major dye classes used for wool. The chapter also covers temporary and permanent setting, milling, shrink-resist treatments and functional finishes. Processing conditions such as pH and temperature are considered in relation to colour uniformity and fibre protection. Modern approaches increasingly emphasize lower-water, lower-chemical and enzyme-assisted finishing routes to improve sustainability