eChapters

Scientists rely on a variety of endocrine, behavioral, autonomic nervous system and immunological end points to measure stress. Unfortunately, none of these measures has proved to be a litmus test for stress. Increased secretion of the adrenal glucocorticoids and cortisol has been found to be associated with stress and investigators frequently cite an increase in circulating cortisol as a proof of stress. Colborn et al., (1991) found that stallions secreted similar amounts of cortisol whether the stallions were restrained, exercised or permitted to mate with a mare. Serum cortisol concentrations are often used to evaluate stress, but due to the marked variability, faecal corticosterone has been used to evaluate stress in cattle (Morrow et al., 2002). Dairy cattle secrets cortisol during restrained and when approached by strangers. So it is difficult to simply use secretion of cortisol or any other hormone to differentiate between non threatening stress and distress. Further, complicating is inter animal variability in stress response. Even among the same breed some cows may produce more cortisol to the same amounts of thermal stressors.

Abstract

Drying is one of the most important industrial operations for preservation of food material. Due to the major limitations posed by convective drying methods, there is always a need for novel drying techniques which are technically, economically and environmentally sustainable. Based on the principle of moisture diffusion due to vapor pressure gradient, atmospheric freeze drying (AFD) offers a promising alternative to conventional drying systems. A cold gas with low water vapor pressure is used as drying medium to sublimate moisture directly from the frozen material at atmospheric pressure conditions. As a result the product gets dried at much lower temperature unlike convective drying. Thus, products dried with AFD retain better nutrition, texture and color and the process is also considerably cost effective. Major limitation of the AFD process is longer drying time, which can however be accelerated by using heat pump drying or new ultrasound technology. This chapter focuses on mechanism, benefits, limitations and comparative study of AFD with other drying methods such as hot air drying and vacuum freeze drying. It provides an insight regarding effect of AFD on properties of food material based on various studies reported in literature.

Introduction

The first application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis was made just over 100 years ago by Kirchoff (1860), who demonstrated the presence of various elements in the solar atmosphere. He and Bunsen, demonstrated shortly afterwards that atomic spectra, whether in emission or absorpiton, could be the basis of a powerful method of chemical analysis. Walsh (1955) recognized the potential advantages of the absorption method over emission method and devised simple and versatile apparatus applicable to the routine analysis of solutions of a wide range of elements. Alkemade and Milatz (1955) published papers describing the application of atomic absorption  techniques to chemical analysis.

21.1 Automatic Weather Station

Automatic Weather Station, popularly known as AWS, is an electronic device and an automated version of the traditional weather station. Numerous weather sensors are connected to the system which automatically records and stores weather data. It is quite useful in remote areas where no frequent access is possible. The system requires hardware as well as software to log in, store, display, retrieve and analyze the data. The digital data recorded from AWS can be downloaded to the laptop through the memory device. The same digital data can be converted to the actual values indicating various weather parameters through the software provided along with the AWS. It should be also maintained in the desktop of PC/AT so that the data are doubly assured. Every AWS has its own software depending upon the manufactures. Time interval can be fixed for recording weather data depending upon the purpose since it is a continuous recorder. Continuous AWS data are integrated at hourly or half-hourly interval for monitoring weather data, otherwise enormous data are continuously stored and no way are used. Of course, continuous weather display is possible for monitoring weather conditions spatially and temporarily.

Automatic Weather Station consists of a datalogger, rechargeable battery, telemetry (optional) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel. The system may report in near real time via GPRS or save the data for later recovery. Majority of automatic weather stations possesses normally Thermometer Sensor for measuring temperature; Anemometer for measuring wind speed; Wind vane for measuring wind direction; Hygrometer for measuring relative humidity; Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure; Rain gauge for measuring rainfall and Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation. Automatic weather stations are based around a programmable datalogger that measures the sensors, then processes, stores, and transmits the data. Dataloggers have wide operating temperature ranges, on-board instructions, programmable execution intervals and input channels for commonly used sensors. Wind vector, wet bulb, histogram and sample on maxima or minima are standard in the datalogger instruction sets. Most sensors can be measured directly without external signal conditioning. Data are typically viewed and stored in the units of your choice(e.g., wind speed in mph, m/s, knots). Measurement rates and data recording intervals are independently programmable, allowing calculation of 15 minute, hourly, and daily data values from 1 minute or 1 second measurements, for example. Conditional outputs, such as rainfall intensity and wind gusts, can also be recorded. The program can be modified at any time to accommodate different sensor configurations or new data processing requirements.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

Separation of Bacteria and Protozoa
(Method of Czerkawski, 1975)

Rumen contents are obtained just before and two hours after feeding from sheep that had been given an experimental ration. The samples of rumen contents are strained through gauze and fractioned by sedimentation and centrifugation to give preparations of mixed protozoa (PR), large bacteria (LB) and small bacteria (SB). Whole particulate matter is also isolated by centrifugation at 20000g. The detail steps are mentioned in the flow chart given below.

What are Genes? Genes are linear sequences of nucleotides of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides and is responsible for determining a particular characteristic of cell. Nucleotides consist of nitrogen –containing compounds called bases, joined to the sugar, deoxyribose and to phosphate. The nucleotide bases are the purines, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine.

A number of genes are joined together to form a structure called a chromosome.

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other into a double helical structure. The nucleotide bases are arranged in a specific sequence in each strand. The strand has a backbone of sugar and phosphate from which the bases protrude.

Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the gravest threats to modern medicine, undermining decades of progress in infectious disease control. It is cited by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 threats to global health. In 2019 alone, AMR was associated with approximately 4.95 million deaths, including 1.27 million directly attributable to resistant bacterial infections. This makes AMR a leading cause of death worldwide, surpassing HIV/AIDS (0.86 million deaths) and malaria (0.64 million deaths) in the same year. Projections suggest that if the trend continues unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, representing a profound human-cost escalation. Livestock and Animal burden While the quantitative burden of AMR in animals is not yet globally mapped, its effects in livestock are already both profound and alarming. Over 70% of all antimicrobials globally are used in farm animalsfrequently for growth promotion and disease prevention—not just treatment. This widespread use contributes to emerging resistance in key pathogens—Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter in poultry, and severe swine dysentery in pigs. In some outbreaks, swine dysentery, resistant to conventional treatment, has caused up to 90% morbidity and 30% mortality in weaned pigs. Animal-to-Human Transmission and the One Health Paradigm Antimicrobial resistance in livestock doesn’t stay on the farm—it seeps into the environment and crosses over to humans via food chains, direct contact, and environmental pathways. For example, substandard veterinary medicines and antibiotic misuse has been traced in zoonotic infections and veterinary-tohuman AMR transmission.Surveillance gaps remain: the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) acknowledges that while human-related AMR mortality is well-documented, the animal health burden is not yet quantified globally—though numerous projects are underway to address this gap. The failure of conventional antibiotics to treat resistant infections highlights the urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Among the most promising options is bacteriophage therapy—the use of viruses that specifically target and kill bacteria. Bacteriophages Bacteriophages, often referred to simply as phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within the bacteria. They are considered as the most abundant biological entities on Earth, with an estimated amount 10³¹ phage particles present in the biosphere—outnumbering bacteria by approximately tenfold. Phages are naturally found in diverse ecosystems including soil, ocean, sewage, and even within the microbiomes of humans and animals.

Industrial revolution took place in England during the period of 1760-1830. Accordingly, the production prior to demand was introduced. Many countries all over the world adopted industrial policies favouring industrial sector to achieve the fast development of the nation. Government of India also contributed its efforts in the same direction and issued the industrial policy of 1948, 1956, 1977 and so on making several financial and non financial facilities available to have substantial growth and development of industries in particular and nation in general.

Under the name of globalization and making the economy internationally competent, India took a revolutionary decision to follow new industrial policy 1991 opening the doors for investment from foreign countries and private sector even. In addition to this economic reforms have been adopted and advocated for the sake of national development. Three ‘D’ programme consisting of devaluation, decontrol and disinvestment, were also put on the national agenda, to achieve the set targets.

Scheme

The needy livestock farmer visits the banks in the local area and enquire with the bank manager about the livestock projects and after having discussion with him, he visits the technical expert. A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP, etc. livestock co-operative society/union/federation/commercial livestock farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive livestock farmers and government/military/agricultural university livestock farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of livestock farming. A good practical training and experience in livestock farming will be highly desirable. The livestock co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Livestock Development Department of State Government and National Livestock Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of livestock farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the livestock farm is located near urban centre. The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, livestock society/union/federation.

Setting up livestock enterprise be it a small dairy unit, goat unit, milk and meat processing plant, selling parlor requires capital. Lack of access to credit to expand the herd is a critical problem for farmers. There is little access to formal credit through the cooperatives or banks. Informal credit is available from private traders and agents of private companies, but the interest rate is very high. Keeping this situation in mind and to provide financial support from banks few major dairy entrepreneurship schemes have been developed and implemented by banks with the support of state animal husbandry departments across different parts of the country. National Bank on Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the lead bank for financial support of such schemes.

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food may be defined as substances that provide nutrients, which when eaten and absorbed by the body, maintain life and growth. Food is basically energy stored in plant and animal foods in chemical form. On consumption, the stored form gets converted to physiological energy. Food is the prime necessity of life. Man has exhibited much thought and foresight in cultivating a variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and oilseeds and in rearing birds and animals for use as food.

Of the three primary needs of an individual, food, clothing and shelter, ‘food’ occupies the most important place. The biodiversity of foods- cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits and vegetables is varied and high in India, where we have varied agro-climatic regions from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All the fifteen major climates in the world exist in India. India is the second largest producer of food in the world. The impact of green revolution is remarkable in India with many fold increased food production in the last five decades. The full potential of Indian agriculture can not be realized unless India emerges as a major player in the World agriculture.

World population is set to go beyond nine billion by 2050 and demand for food is likely to increase further because of growing affluence and globalization. Food security is achieved when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious value added food. India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The food processing industry in India has been identified as one of thrust areas for the development of the country. It has emerged as a highly perspective sector with immense potential in food processing. The future of Indian food processing industries is bright, provided it improves its quality of products as per international standards.The quality of food processing refers to the adherence of physical, chemical, biological, nutritional and sensory parameters required to achieve the wholesomeness of a food product. Quality control has become an important aspect for food processing industry for both domestic and export markets.

Introduction

The process of setting up a business is preceded by the decision to choose entrepreneurship as a career and identification of promising business ideas upon a careful examination of the entrepreneurial opportunities. Generation of ideas is not enough; the business ideas must stand the scrutiny from techno economic, financial and legal perspectives. That is, after the initial screening of the ideas that do not seem promising prima facie, you should conduct an in-depth examination of the chosen three-four before settling for the one where you would like to exert your time, money and energies. You should prepare a business plan that will serve as the road map for effective venturing, whether you may require institutional funding (in which case it is necessary to do so) or not. Setting up of new business enterprises is a very challenging task; you are likely to encounter many problems en route. It’s advisable to be aware of these problems.

Wool serves as a dense, wavy, and fibrous protective layer for sheep, primarily made up of the insoluble protein keratin. The wool fiber develops from follicles located in the dermis, which is the skin’s middle layer. Each wool fiber comprises two distinct layers:
1. Outer layer: This layer consists of flat, irregularly shaped scales that overlap, resembling fish scales. These scales are less tightly bound than those found in hair and are essential to the wool’s characteristics, such as its capacity to shrink, strengthen, and felt. The outer layer also affects the overall quality of the wool. While the sheep is alive, the outer scales are coated with wool sweat or grease (termed suint), secreted by specialized glands to preserve the fiber’s condition. This grease can be partially removed during washing, and its presence influences the wool’s condition, which pertains to the quantity of grease or oil present in the wool.
2. Inner layer: Known as the cortex, this layer is composed of long fibrils that are bonded together. In contrast to hair, which contains an air-filled medulla in its inner layer, wool does not possess this feature, contributing to its superior strength compared to hair.
Morphological Structure of Wool: Technically, wool comprises three layers: cuticle or epidermis, cortex and medulla.
1. Cuticle: The outermost layer of the wool fiber, referred to as the cuticle, is made up of flat, irregularly shaped scales that overlap with their edges directed toward the fiber tip. This overlapping configuration, akin to roof tiles, produces a rough texture that increases friction and aids in felting. When disturbed, these scales interlock, leading to the entanglement of fibers and the formation of a matted fabric, which is beneficial for felted textiles. Additionally, the cuticle possesses a waxy coating that offers a water-repellent barrier, preventing water penetration while permitting moisture vapor absorption, thereby enhancing wool’s resistance to water-based stains and improving comfort by wicking moisture away.

Wool is a thick and wavy animal fiber makes fibrinous protective covering of sheep. There are 170 different types of proteins are found in wool but the major and foremost protein is keratin. It is insoluble in nature and forms most of the part of wool. True wool fiber is basically modified hair that is not shed like the hair of most farm animals and medulla is absent in true wool. Wool contains excessively scaly surface but hair surface is mostly smooth, less elastic. The matured keratinized fiber extruding above the skin is considered dead tissue. Wool fiber is basically originated from follicle situated in dermis or middle layer of skin. Wool fiber is elastic, hygroscopic, retains warmness, durable, non inflammable and transmits ultra-violet light.

Economics revolves around key concepts such as goods value, price, wealth, income, savings, investment, and consumption. These concepts are interconnected and form the foundation of economic analysis. Below is a detailed explanation of each:
Goods: Definition, Types, and Economic Importance
Definition of Goods
Goods refer to tangible or intangible items that satisfy human wants and have value. Goods can be material (physical objects) or non-material (services), and they play a crucial role in fulfilling human needs and desires. They form the basis of economic activity, as humans constantly seek to fulfil their needs and desires.
Examples
Tangible Goods: You can touch them. Food, clothing, vehicles, dairy products. Intangible Goods (Services): Services you experience. Veterinary services, teaching, medical care.
Classification of Goods in Economics
Goods can be categorized based on different criteria such as material nature, supply, transferability, consumption, ownership, and income elasticity.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

What is market?

Market is derived from the Latin word “Marcatus” meaning trade, merchandise, ware, traffic or place of business. In the ordinary language, market is a place where buyers and sellers meet personally and make their purchases or sales. But in the language of economics, market need not be a place but it may be an area or region meant for potential exchange between a group of buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the terms of purchase and sale of goods and services and such negotiations may be done face to face at a certain place or may be done through other means of communication such as mail, phone, cable, television or through business middle men. Whatever may be the means of communication there will be free exchange or perfect communication between buyers and sellers so that a fairly uniform price prevails for a particular commodity over the whole area at any given time.

Sensory evaluation is a scientific method of evaluating foods including meat products that applies principles of experimental design and statistical analysis through the use of human senses like sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. It is also called organoleptic evaluation in which we measure, analyse and interpret reactions to those characteristics of materials as they are perceived by the human senses. These attributes can be perceived well by the human sense organs as compared to instruments available for this purpose. It is a fact that no single instrument is able to assess all the attributes of meat products. With the help of these instruments we can very well evaluate the single quality attribute of meat product i.e. shear force instrument or penetrometer is good for knowing the texture and refractometer is for colour interpretation.

The Tuppa area, which is located 10-12 km away from Nanded city, and covers an area of about 66 km² was blessed with good , quality of water before industrialisation in this area. With the advent of industries more and more people from this region started complaining about the bad taste & quality of drinking water from dug and bore wells. From 1997 to1999 there was continuous increase in the lateral extent of pollution, with deeper bore wells more contaminated than the dug wells (Kaplay, et al. 2004).

Introduction

Cocoa beans are extracted from the pod of a tree crop Theobroma cacao. It is mainly cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. In terms of world production, Ivory Coast and Ghana contribute about 65 percent of world production. Cocoa beans are the main ingredient in chocolate. (Teye, E et al 2014). One of the earliest examples of chocolate consumption comes from the Mayans. The Maya drink was prepared with cocoa and water and often included cinnamon and black pepper. It was also known as the “Food of the Gods” and offered to Emperor Moctezuma II by the Aztecs, (Verna, R. 2013). Christopher Columbus was the first European to encounter cocoa in 1502.