eChapters

Water is indispensable for our life. About 2/3 of earth is covered with water. No organism can survive without water. So keeping water free from any pollutant is very important. Water is said to be  “polluted” when it is hanged in its quality and composition directly or indirectly by man’s activity so that it becomes less suitable for drinking, domestic, agricultural or any other purpose. Polluted water transmits a large number of diseases in man. They are cholera, typhoid, dysentery, jaundice and other bacterial or viral diseases.  Water becomes polluted by the presence or addition on inorganic or organic substances or biological agents. Soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks, decaying of organic matter are natural sources of water pollution. There has been an alarming increase in the degradation of water quality in the recent past in the large cities and industrial areas.

Water pollution can be studied under the following heads—  (i) medium in which it occurs (surface water, ground water); (ii) habitat (lakes, estuaries and open seas); and (iii) type of pollutants (bacterial, metallic, thermal and radioactive).

Since the Green Revolution of 1960s, Indian agriculture have been highly dependent on chemical fertilizers, exploitation of ground water for irrigation, intensive tillage etc. to raise the food grain production of the country towards ensuring food security for all. The consequences of these practices resulted in declined and degraded soil health, soil erosion and dried up water capillaries - ultimately posing threat to the sustainability of the future production. This invites the need of affordable changes in the agricultural practices without hampering the production. Conservation Agriculture, as put forward by FAO, is a set of sustainable agricultural practices, aims to conserve, improve and make efficient use of natural resources through management of soil, water and biological resources in aid with external inputs. The three basic principles of Conservation Agriculture include - minimum soil disturbances, permanent soil cover and crop rotation or crop diversification.

For the hundreds of thousands of years that we lived on earth,there were few rapid changes in the atmosphere. It is only in recent times, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, that our activities on earth began to modify our environment in a significant manner.  Industrial pollution has affected the water we drink, the air we breathe, and in general,the biosphere itself.Now noise has joined the bandwagon of pollutants.

Noise certainly comes within the scope of definition of a pollutant that “..... any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of our air, land and water that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of any other desirable species or industrial process, living conditions or cultural assets, or that may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources.”

Agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. The farmers have been practicing agroforestry since ancient times. The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock, therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system. In fact, man’s association with forest is much older than with agriculture. First man was a food gatherer and hunter in forests. Then he realized that the seeds of the fruits he collected germinated, grew into plants and bore the fruits again and thus man started to cultivate foods. Man’s desire to live in a community created settled agriculture.

Since then, the pressure on the agricultural lands has increased manifolds due to the increasing population, expansion of urban area and the industrialization process. The environment has also been disturbed. Soil is losing its productivity and the biodiversity is threatened. Farming community is trying all means to increase the land productivity. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are applied in higher proportion, causing environmental pollution hazards. Under all these circumstances agroforestry has shown that besides sustainable agriculture it can also help promote a better environment. This relatively young science known as agroforestry was brought from the realm of indigenous knowledge into the forefront of agricultural research four decades ago and was promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of forestry and agriculture.

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/ or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways.

1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time.
2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

Farmers can grow multipurpose trees (MPT) in various combinations with other crops, as in agroforestry, in block plantations of trees or in naturally regenerating tree farms. In certain cases, multipurpose trees are grown and managed for only one purpose. For example, Gliricida sepium is grown only to provide shade in coffee plantations. The same species may be planted in some other places and is managed differently for a very different use.

Drought Early Warning Systems (DEWS) form the essential foundation for effective and proactive drought management strategies. These systems are crucial in facilitating a fundamental shift from reactive approaches, where responses are implemented after the onset of a crisis, to proactive risk reduction measures that aim to anticipate and mitigate the adverse effects of drought before they fully materialize. By providing timely and accurate information about impending drought conditions, DEWS empower governments, communities, and individuals to make informed decisions and take preemptive actions, thereby minimizing the potential economic, social, and ecosystem losses associated with these events (Fig.6.1). Recognizing the risks posed by drought in a timely manner is of paramount importance for ensuring an effective and comprehensive response that can alleviate suffering and reduce overall vulnerability. The implementation of robust drought early warning systems plays a critical role in minimizing the negative consequences of drought and building longterm resilience to this recurring natural hazard.

The specter of climate change looms large over our planet, its influence permeating every aspect of the Earth’s systems. Among the most concerning manifestations of this global shift is the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events, and atmospheric droughts are emerging as a particularly insidious threat. The present chapter shines a spotlight on this critical intersection, meticulously dissecting how the profound alterations in our climate are fundamentally reshaping the dynamics of atmospheric moisture Going beyond traditional notions of drought rooted in soil dryness, this chapter will illuminate the concept of atmospheric drought – a state where the air itself becomes exceptionally parched, characterized by low relative humidity and a voracious atmospheric demand for moisture. We will unravel the intricate ways in which climate change acts as a catalyst for these conditions. Rising global temperatures amplify evaporation rates, while shifts in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns can steer moisture-laden air away from v

Introduction

The Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP) is of great importance for the food security of India. It extends over 1,600 km with a width of 320 km, including the arid and semi arid environments in Rajasthan and Punjab and the humid and per humid deltaic plains in west Bengal (Shankaranarayana, 1982). During the green revolution period in the early 1960s, production increased through area expansion and intensification of the rice –wheat system. Driving forces included suitable thermal regimes for rice and wheat cultivation, development of short- duration, nitrogen responsive cultivars, expansion of irrigation and an ever increasing demand for food from the rising population. The rice –wheat system, covering an area of around 10 million hectares (mha), is the major cropping system in the IGP. These two crops together contribute more than 70 % of total cereals production in India from an area of around 25 mha under wheat and about 40 mha under rice. The small states of Punjab and Haryana contribute 20 % of the total national grain production and 50 % and 85 % of the government procurement of rice and wheat, respectively (Singh, 2000).

2.1. The Physical environment
    Light
    Soil temperature
    Water dynamics

2.2. Chemical environment
    Production of phytotoxins

2.3. Biological environment
    Trophic dynamics
    Community structure
    Biodiversity

Introduction

It is estimated that about 16 per cent of total geographical area of India (329 m ha) has moisture index value below - 66.6% and is thus classified arid. This area is further classified into hot arid (36.8 m ha) and cold arid (15.2 m ha) regions (Ramakrishna et al., 2000). The hot arid region is characterized by extreme temperatures, low (<500 mm) and erratic rainfall, very high wind velocities, low humidity, high PET (>1800 mm) and frequent severe droughts which occur once in three years to alternate years in general. The soil moisture and soil temperature regimes are aridic and hyperthermic, respectively. The hot arid region exists in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, and Karnataka (Fig 1).

Introduction  

Developing effective strategies for improving and stabilizing rainfed crop production continues to be a prime concern in the semi-arid region of western India. Rain water management is most crucial aspect in rainfed production systems. Growing uncertainties associated with rainfall pattern (Ali et al., 2007) add to the complexity of the challenge. The medium deep black soil region of Rajasthan is spread predominantly in Jhalawar, Kota, Baran, Bundi, and Sawai Madhopur districts of South-eastern Rajasthan (Fig. 1). This region is characterized by almost flat alluvial plains interspersed with hills of Arawali and Vindhyan ranges and rock outcrops. 

Introduction

Soil is considered one of the world’s limited, non-renewable resources. Under cropland conditions, it takes between 200 and 1000 years for 2.5cm of topsoil to form (Piementel et al., 1995). The continued maintenance of fertile soil is essential in order to meet basic human needs. It strengthens the provision of ecosystem services such as food production and climate regulation, and provides the basis of livelihoods for millions of people across the world (Ma, 2005). The multi-functionality of soils is key to the sustainable use of land and soils. A healthy soil performs six essential functions (Andrews et al., 2004) namely: i) Physical Stability and Support, ii) Water Relations, iii) Resistance and resilience- iv) Nutrient Cycling, v) Biodiversity and Habitat and vi) Filtering and Buffering. These soil functions are controlled by various soil properties. Among them soil structure is one of the most important properties of soil, which describes soil condition and has a great influence on crop production.

1. Introduction
Bioremediation is an environmentally friendly process that uses numerousdifferent microbes (e.g., fungi & bacteria), green plants, or combinations
of them to weaken and detoxify dangerous pollutants in a sequential orsuccessional manner. The pollutant composites are converted by biologicalorganisms through a response that takes place as part of their metabolicprocesses. They convert poisonous pollutants into carbon dioxide (CO2) andwater (H2O), microbial biomass, and other products that are less poisonous.The organic wastes are biologically degraded under controlled, harmless, andsafe condition into inoffensive products below the admissible limits establishedby supervisory authorities.

Introduction

Climate change has undoubtedly resulted in greater public and scientific involvement. Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity (IPCC, 2007). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) defined it as a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity which alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. World Meteorology Organisation defines climate change as statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). 

Introduction

Modern agriculture has been of great help in alleviating hunger from the world, because the world population more than doubled itself during the last half of the 20th century; it increased from 2.5 billion in AD 1950 to 7.1 billion in 2012 (USCB, 2013). It is predicted that the world population will again double itself by the end of the 21st century and will touch the 12 billion mark. Most of this increase in population has been, and will be, in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and South America. India occupies 2.4 percent of the total land area of the world, but supports 16.7 per cent of the world population. Like many other developing countries in the world, population in India is increased from 345 million in 1947 to 1210 million as per the 2011 census with a growth rate of 1.76 during last decade. Therefore, pressure on land has been mounting up at an alarming rate. Population growth coupled with live stock population expansion, urbanization and industrialization are major contributory factors to it. The unscientific and unplanned exploitation of this limited resource takes its toll in terms of degrading the land. A large proportion of the land area shows clear evidence of advanced and continuing degradation seriously affecting the country’s productive resource base (Abrol and Sehgal, 1994). Jammu & Kashmir and  Nagaland  have maximum share of their land (94%) under degradation. This is primarily due to large areas under mountains, cold deserts and other such degraded lands. In the agriculturally prominent states like Uttar Pradesh (63%), Madhya Pradesh (50%) and Karnataka (46%) (Shalander Kumar, 2011) the extent of land degradation is of great concern and posing a big threat to the natural resources, resulting in almost 5 billion tonnes soil and 6 million tones of nutrient loss every year (Singh, 2009).

1. Introduction to Biomedical Waste (BMW)
The waste produced at different medical facilities, including hospitals,laboratories, research centers, mortuaries, and autopsy centers is considered asBiomedical Waste (BMW). Some of the BMW is hazardous whereas some arenon-hazardous in nature. Hazardous waste includes, Infectious, Pathological,Microbiological, Pharmaceutical, Chemical, Cytotoxic and Radioactive wastematerial as described by World Health Organization (Fig. 1). Healthcarepersonnel and the general public are at risk from physical, chemical, andmicrobiological effects of hazardous waste. On the other hand, the nonhazardousBMW which are not harmful, include packaging material made upof plastic & thermocol, cardboards, paper waste etc. (Capoor & Parida, 2021).

We are living in a world that is in a grim state of environmental disruptions. Callous developmental activities resulting in pollution of all environmental components and gradually culminating in global warming, climate change, and species extinction are responsible for triggering the processes of environmental disruption. Pollution of air, water, and soil is rapidly assuming alarming proportions.

The very processes of socioeconomic development are now posing threat to economic progress as well as to human health. Ominous changes in global climate are posing threat to life on Earth. The irony is that the major cause of environmental disruptions is anthropogenic rather than natural. Human’s materialistic progress and environmental pollution in our contemporary world go hand in hand.

Life on Earth is rooted in soil. Soil is not just a substratum anchoring the plants and giving a base for all terrestrial animals. It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem, and one of the most wonderful ecosystems on Earth. It inhabits most microorganisms. Microbial populations flourishing within the soil have greater biomass than all the human beings, elephants, and whales put together. It is due to the microorganisms that the soil constitutes the most active ecosystem on Earth.

The health of the soil is crucial for the health of all the plants growing on it and for all the animals dependent on it for their inhabitation and nourishment. Soil health is also critical for the well-being of numerous microorganisms, detritivores, and several other organisms. Soil is composed of all essential nutrients/ minerals, air, water, and organisms in a proportion that strikes its ecological balance and maintains its structure and functions revealed through its productive potential.

Soil, like all other ecosystems, is itself a dynamic ecosystem. Its composition keeps changing but natural inbuilt mechanisms help strike a balance and recover 

A sound is a form or energy. Therefore, it has to have an impact on life in one way or the other. Most of the organisms of Kingdom Animalia communicate with each other creating a peculiar sound. Creating sound is inevitable for performing various life activities. Every animal species has the characteristic sound it reflects through its behavior. Whatever all the animals communicate through creating specific sounds is all-natural. Nature, as such is a stupendous repository of a diversity of sounds, all being specific characteristics of life.

Human behavior, however, is highly evolved in terms of creating a variety of sounds. Communication, entertainment, and many behavioral activities are expressed through creating distinctive sounds. There is a difference between natural sounds and the ones human beings create or can create. Humans often generate sounds, not just in a natural manner, but also with various technical aids, that often become unpleasant what we call noise. Creating noise, or noise pollution, seems to be an exclusive characteristic of the human species. Of course, there could be some natural sounds that might occasionally cause havoc to life. Examples are the sounds generated at the time of the volcanic eruption, during an earthquake

Radioactive pollution is largely attributable to radioactivity, a natural property of certain elements, such as radium, uranium, thorium, etc. of spontaneously emitting protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) through the disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is akin to a helium nucleus. Alpha particles travel at a very slow speed, whereas gamma rays propagate at the speed of light. The alpha particles have less penetration power than the beta and gamma rays. In human tissues, alpha particles can penetrate up to a depth of about 0.005 to 0.008 cm. The gamma rays, on the other hand, are the most penetrating and can easily pass through a human body without striking anything in between. The high penetration power of gamma rays is because they have no charge; therefore, they do not interact with anything as the charged alpha particles would do