eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Rubber cultivation in regions extending from 10°N to 10°S latitude is known as the traditional region and the areas other than its natural climatic origin is termed as the non-traditional region. Northeast India comprises majority of the non-traditional areas in India with major climatic constraints like high seasonal rainfall, excessive precipitation and to some extent dry conditions. These areas extending from 22 to 29^°N latitude, holds promise in extending rubber cultivation because of its exceptional climatic make-up and abundant amount of annual precipitation (2000 mm) distributed over a fair period of time.

This perennial crop generally yields latex rubber at the 7th year after planting (with an economic life span of 20 years), although the period (immaturity period) it requires, is higher in the non-traditional region (Rubber Growers Companion, 2006). This immaturity period has also been shown to reduce with water availability in sub-humid climates (Vijayakumar et al. , 1998). Harvest of this crop is by tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during which thin shavings of bark are removed, thus opening the latex vessels which exude latex. Dry rubber yield is obtained after the latex is coagulated and rolled into sheets (about 500gm) which is then smoked and dried.

The natural habitat of rubber (Heavea brasiliensis) is rain forests of the Amazon basin, situated within 5° North and South at altitudes below 200m. The climate of this region is equatorial monsoon type characterized by mean
monthly temperature by 25 to 28°C, well distributed rainfall and no marked dry weather. Though it is originated in the Amazon basin, it is now predominantly grown in the tropics where an equatorial monsoon type climate prevails. Regions between 8°N and 10°S which includes Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, southern part of Sri Lank  and some other Islands, are better suited to rubber cultivation. The production of natural rubber in the country was 8.65 lakh MT in 2008–09, registering a 4.74 per cent growth compared to the previous year. India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with a share of eight per cent in the World after Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and the fourth largest consumer of natural rubber after China, USA and Japan. Among the rubber growing countries in the World, India occupies a pride place with the top most position in productivity (Table 9.1). The productivity of natural rubber (NR) in India in 2009–10 was 1784 kg/ha. In 1950–51, it was 284 kg/ha. The growth achieved in terms of the productivity of natural rubber is 628 per cent. This achievement

3.1 Runoff

Runoff is one of the important parameter of hydrologic cycle. It is defined as that portion of precipitation which is not absorbed by the deep soil strata but finds its way into the stream after meeting the demands of evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, surface storage, and surface as well as channel detention. It includes surface runoff received into the channels after precipitation occurs, delayed runoff that enters the stream after passing through the land surface, and other delayed runoff from the temporarily detained pits, depressions, swamps or detained as snow fall. It is thus the flow collected from the drainage basin and appearing at the outlet of the basin. The runoff process is demonstrated in Fig. 3.1 as flow chart. Details of the runoff process are discussed as below.

Introduction 
Chapter 14 explores the intricate relationship between rural development and agricultural economics, emphasizing their roles in promoting sustainability and food security. This chapter examines various aspects of agricultural policy, agribusiness, farm management, rural entrepreneurship, and sociology, linking these elements to broader economic and environmental concerns. The chapter starts with an analysis of agricultural policy and development, discussing how policy frameworks shape agricultural practices and rural growth. It highlights the importance of effective policies in fostering agricultural innovation, improving productivity, and supporting rural development. Agribusiness and marketing are crucial components of agricultural economics. This section delves into agribusiness strategies and agricultural marketing practices that influence market access, value addition, and overall economic viability for farmers and agribusinesses. Farm management and financial analysis are essential for optimizing agricultural operations and ensuring financial sustainability. The chapter explores principles of farm management, including planning, decision-making, and risk management, along with techniques for financial analysis to evaluate the profitability and efficiency of farming enterprises. Rural entrepreneurship is highlighted as a key driver of economic development in rural areas. This section examines how entrepreneurial activities contribute to rural growth, job creation, and economic diversification, fostering resilience and innovation in rural communities. Rural sociology provides insights into the social dimensions of rural development. The chapter covers the importance of rural sociology in understanding social structures, behaviors, and dynamics within rural communities. It also discusses new concepts in rural sociology that address contemporary challenges and opportunities. The importance of rural development and agricultural economics in food security is emphasized. The chapter explains how these fields contribute to enhancing food security by improving agricultural practices, supporting rural livelihoods, and addressing food supply challenges.

Abstract

A very strong shallow focus submarine earthquake (of magnitude 9.0) occurred off the west coast of Sumatra Island due to the movement of Indian Plate and Burma Plate on 26th December 2004 at 06:18:53 IST. A vast area around its epicentre was rocked including Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of the eastern and western coasts of the Indian mainland. This earthquake had generated a global tsunami, which had also pounced on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and caused severe damage to the coastal population and infrastructure. Considering the devastation of this tsunamigenic earthquake, the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India has launched a coordinated programme for imparting S & T inputs with futuristic approach to support rehabilitation programme in the affected areas on a sustainable manner. The main objective of the programme is to generate geospatial databases on damages and risk zonation using pre and post-tsunami remote sensing (RS) data along with collateral attribute data in GIS platform. This paper speaks on the damage assessment (both natural / physical resources and human resources) caused by the earthquake and tsunami covering parts of Andaman Islands along with strategies for risk management and constraints and alternatives for micro level planning.

Keywords: Tsunamigenic earthquake, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing and GIS, Andaman - Nicobar.

Introduction

The coastal tract of peninsular India extends from Rann of Kutch in Gujarat to Malabar Coast in Kerala on the western coast and from Coromandal coast in Tamil Nadu up to Sunderban delta in West Bengal on the eastern coast. The eastern coast is generally characterized by a wider coast line when compared to its western counterpart. Coastal ecosystem in India occupies an area of about10.78 million hectares (1,07,833 km²) extending in nine states. It also occupies considerable area underLakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. The extent and distribution of coastalarea have been shown in Table 1.

Saline Water Agriculture has been drawing interest as one of the solutions for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salt-tolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential.

It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.

11.1 Introduction

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. The technical term for saltiness in the ocean is halinity, from the fact that halides, chloride specifically are the most abundant anions in the mix of dissolved elements. In oceanography, it has been traditional to express halinity not as percent, but as parts per thousand (ppt ), which is approximately grams of salt per liter of solution. In other disciplines chemical analyses of solutions, and thus salinity is frequently reported in mg/L or ppm (parts per million). Prior to 1978, salinity or halinity was expressed as % usually based on the electrical conductivity ratio of the sample to “Copenhagen water”, an artificial sea water manufactured to serve as a world “standard”(Lewis, E.L 1980). In 1978, oceanographers redefined salinity in Practical Salinity Units (psu): the conductivity ratio of a sea water sample to a standard KCl solution (UNESCO, 1981a) (UNESCO, 1981b). Ratios have no units, so it is not the case that 35 psu exactly equals 35 grams of salt per litre of solution (UNESCO, 1985).

These seemingly esoteric approaches to measuring and reporting salt concentrations may appear to obscure their practical use; but it must be remembered that salinity is the sum weight of many different elements within a given volume of water. It has always been the case that to get a precise salinity as a concentration and convert this to an amount of substance required knowing much more about the sample and the measurement than just the weight of the solids upon evaporation. For example, volume is influenced by water temperature; and the composition of the salts is not a constant. Saline waters from inland seas can have a composition that differs from that of the ocean. For the latter reason, these waters are termed saline as differentiated from ocean waters, where the term haline applies.

The total amount of salts dissolved in water is known as salinity. Salinity of water is denoted as ppt, g/L, psu. Salinity of different water has been classified as Freshwater 0-0.5 ppt, Brackish water 0.5-30ppt and Marine water > 300 ppt.
Reagents
1. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) (0.1N): Dissolve 4.25 g silver nitrate in distilled water and make the total volume 250 ml by shaking.
2. Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) indicator (5%): Dissolve 2.5 g potassium chromate in distilled water and make the total volume 50 ml by shaking.
Procedure
1. Salinity in estuarine and coastal water can be estimated by this method.
2. Take 10 ml of water sample in a 50 ml conical flask.
3. Add 3-4 drops of potassium nitrate indicator solution to it.
4. Titrate against 0.1N Silver nitrate till the yellow colour changes to brick red.

    1.    Salt affected soils;
    2.    Classification of salt affected soils; 
    3.    Formation of salt affected soils; 

Introduction

The need for water for human consumption and the industry keeps spiraling up in the cities in the wake of rural diaspora and urban sprawl. Groundwater is exploited at an unsustainable rate leading to depletion of aquifers. Worse still is the intrusion of salt water from adjoining coast into the aquifers leading to total wastage of remaining water.

Next to the mineral frame work the salts in the soil deserve consideration. In fact these salts constitute the main food material of plants besides what the root hairs can get out of the mineral framework in the form of basic materials already dealt with. We are, however, not concerned with the plant food materials, but salts that are in excess and which alter the properties of the soil to such an extent as to influence its behaviour profoundly.

Appendix - 1:
Physical Properties of Seed – bed / Puddled Soil

Tillage is the process of getting the soil ready for planting and maintaining it loose and weed-free while the crop is growing.  The main goal and core function of tillage are broken down into three phases:

1. Creating a suitable seedbed,
2.  Eliminating weed competition, and
3.  Enhancing the physical quality of the soil.

Soil testing is a useful tool that can help to ensure the efficient use of applied plant nutrients. Soil tests provide a means for assessing the fertility status of a soil, but soil tests do not provide a direct measure of the actual quantity of plant available nutrients in the soil. Instead, soil tests measure the quantity of a nutrient element that is extractable from a soil by a particular chemical extracting solution. The measured quantity of extractable nutrient in a soil is then used to predict the crop yield response to application of the nutrient as fertilizer, manure, or other amendment. As soil test levels increase for a particular nutrient, the expected crop yield response to additions of that nutrient decreases. A soil-testing programme has four phases as follows:

1.Collection of soil samples,

2.Chemical analysis of soil samples,

3.Calibration and interpretation of the results of chemical analysis, and

4.Nutrient/Fertilizer Recommendation.

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

Abstract

This paper sets out to describe key results and experiences obtained during the assessment of the crop response to water which varies strongly from crop to crop depending on its specific genetic characteristics and adaptation to ecological conditions. The specific crop water information for the different crops is compiled in a crop-based data base. This includes crop water parameters, yield response to water, as well as selection of economy crops. Existing natural water resources can sustain the crop production with high yield as well as economic value with minimal environment impact. Most of the crop varieties get all of its required water from rainfall- water but due to climate change there is always a demand of irrigation water from the ground water resources. Thus, there is a need to evaluate the crop water information in relation to ground water extraction as a source of irrigation.

5.1 Introduction
The Earth’s atmosphere is a vast, dynamic, and interconnected system, constantly in motion and influencing every aspect of our lives. Accurately observing and understanding this complex system is fundamental to predicting weather, monitoring climate change, and responding to environmental challenges. While ground-based platforms provide invaluable high-resolutiondata at specific locations, theitr  spatial coverage is inherently limited. This is where satellite remote sensing emerges as a revolutionary tool in meteorology. By observing the Earth and its atmosphere from space, satellites offer an unparalleled vantage point, providing global and continuous coverage that is impossible to achieve with ground-based instruments alone. They can capture data from remote oceans, deserts, and polar regions, offering a truly holistic view of atmospheric processes.
Satellite remote sensing enables meteorologists to measure a wide array of atmospheric parameters, including temperature and humidity profiles, cloud properties (type, height, movement), wind fields, precipitation rates, and the distribution of atmospheric gases and aerosols. This wealth of data is crucial for initializing and validating numerical weather prediction models, tracking severe storms, monitoring long-term climate trends, and conducting fundamental atmospheric research. This chapter will delve into the fascinating world of satellite remote sensing in meteorology, exploring the principles behind how these orbiting observatories collect data, the various types of meteorological satellites and their specialized instruments, and the diverse applications of the information they provide for understanding and forecasting
our planet’s weather and climate.

Digital image processing is the use of computer algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. As a subcategory or field of digital signal processing, digital image processing has many advantages over analog image processing. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the buildup of noise and signal distortion during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of multidimensional systems. Introduction to image processing 
Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually image processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing methods to them.
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with that image. Now-a-days, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

Data collection is a tedious and time consuming work, particularly from remote places. So many times the collected data is noisy. But data is the base for future planning and management of water resources. Planning based on noisy data could lead to failure. The modern data collection and subsequent control system i.e. telemetry and SCADA, are introduced in this chapter.

Introduction

Rice is known as the grain of life, and is synonymous with food for Asians. In addition to being a staple food and an integral part of social rites, rituals, and festivals in all Asian countries, it has a medicinal value too, which was clearly recognized by the medicine systems of the region. Ancient Ayurvedic treatises laud the Raktashali red rice as a nutritive food and medicine. The medicinal value of other rices such as Sashtika, Sali, and parched rice have been documented in the Charaka Samhita (c. 700 BC) and the Susruta Samhita (c. 400 BC), in the treatment of various ailments such as diarrhea, vomiting, fever, hemorrhage, chest pain, wounds, and burns.

According to late Dr. Richaria, the well known rice scientist, 4, 00,000 varieties of rice existed in India during the Vedic period. According to his estimates, even today 2, 00,000 varieties of rice exist in India - a truly phenomenal number. Farmers in every part of country have a deep knowledge of their own rice varieties, This has enabled them to harvest a crop even under the most severe stress situations. Traditional paddy varieties are location specific and has its own advantages viz. saline tolerant, drought tolerant, pest tolerant, used for specific purpose such as roofing material for houses etc.