eChapters

Introduction 
There is a significant transformation undergoing in the health insurance sector, driven by technological advancements, shift in the regulatory frameworks and uplifting the consumer expectations towards the sector. There is a rise in the healthcare costs in recent times and as a result the insurers are increasingly Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, Girijananda Chowdhury University, Assam challenged to provide sustainable and equitable coverage to ensure the quality of treatments of the patients. This evolving landscape health insurance claims a comprehensive understanding of the upcoming patterns and trends to shape the future of health insurance. The digital health technologies have evolved recent developments in the form of telemedicine, artificial intelligence and blockchain etc are continuously contributing as how insurance providers assess risk, deliver services, and engage with policyholders. These innovations not only enhance operational effectiveness but also empower consumers to play a more vital role in their healthcare decision making. Thereafter, the importance of the value-based care becomes more remarkable and the insurers are exploring new models that focus upon patient outcomes over volume, aligning incentives between providers and payers. Additionally, the technological advancements along with the demographic shifts that includes aging population and the increasing rate of chronic diseases are changing the direction of health insurance. The service providers must transform their plans and policies to meet the diversified needs of a changing population that significantly prioritizes personalized and accessible care solutions. Since the emergence of alternative insurance models such as on-demand coverage, direct primary care, and self-insured employer plans etc., the industry navigates these changes and results a shift away from traditional insurance practices. Health insurance significantly plays a vital role achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3), aiming to secure healthcare and encourage well-being along with poverty reduction and economic growth of the country. By providing financial safeguard against high-cost medical treatments, health insurance minimises the risk of destructive health expenditures which may lead to positioned the individuals and their families into the line of poverty. As the people in India is having access to better healthcare services, the disparities in healthcare services can be reduced and the equality of healthcare services among all the sections in the society can be attained. It boosts the awareness to access the essential healthcare services that includes maternal health, precautionary care and treatment for non-communicable diseases. However, health insurance stimulates sustainable financing for healthcare with an assurance of pooling the funds equitably to cover the needs of various class of people to enhance the attainment of SDG 3 targets and overall sustainability of global health.

This concluding chapter, “The Future ECG: Predicting a Vibrant Agricultural Heartbeat,” therefore adopts a global lens, acknowledging that the quest for accurate and timely monsoon forecasts is a shared endeavor with worldwide implications. Just as the electrocardiogram serves as a universal diagnostic tool for assessing the health of the human heart, the advancement of monsoon forecasting represents a collective effort to understand and predict the vital “ECG” of agriculture in all monsoon-dependent regions. Throughout this book, we have examined the scientific principles and evolving technologies underpinning monsoon prediction. In this final exploration, we will broaden our perspective to consider how the future of this field will impact agricultural practices and livelihoods on a global scale. The innovations in satellite technology, climate modeling, artificial intelligence, and data analytics that we’ve discussed in the context of the Indian monsoon hold immense potential for enhancing forecasting capabilities in every corner of the world where farmers rely on these seasonal rains. Imagine a future where international collaboration fosters the sharing of data and expertise, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of global monsoon dynamics. Farmers in diverse monsoon-affected regions could benefit from increasingly precise and localized forecasts, empowering them to make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and harvesting. This enhanced predictability promises not only to improve yields and reduce risks but also to contribute to greater resilience against the impacts of climate change, which are increasingly affecting monsoon patterns worldwide. “The Future ECG” in this global context signifies a hopeful outlook, one where continued scientific progress translates into a more secure and prosperous future for all those whose lives and livelihoods are intricately linked to the monsoons. It is a vision of a globally vibrant agricultural heartbeat, sustained by the everevolving science of forecasting and the collective commitment to supporting monsoon-dependent communities worldwide.

Green composites provide opportunities to reduce dependence on petroleum-derived materials while maintaining useful mechanical and functional performance. This chapter examines the fundamentals of green composites and the major challenges limiting their wider adoption. Important issues include poor interfacial bonding, nanoparticle dispersion, variability of natural fibres, mechanical and thermal limitations, processing difficulties, cost, scalability, and commercialization barriers. Nanoparticle reinforcement is explored as a means of improving tensile strength, stiffness, thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and barrier properties. The chapter also discusses green processing, advanced characterization, emerging applications, sustainability assessment, life-cycle assessment, and future research directions for developing high-performance and commercially viable green composite systems.

3.1 Overview of the Global Carbon Market in Pre-Kyoto Protocol Phase

At the First COP in Berlin in 1995, the UNFCCC launched a pilot phase of projects to build experience and “learning by doing”. The pilot phase was termed Activities Implemented Jointly (http://unfccc.int/program/coop/aij/aij_np.html). Under the Activities Implemented Jointly, Annex I Parties could implement projects in other countries that reduced emission of greenhouse gases or enhanced removals of sinks. The number of projects registered under Activities Implemented Jointly has been growing since its launch and as of 2002 (the latest report available) there were 157 projects – 45 percent of which are in developing countries. The total amount of money invested by private sector companies as of 2000 was about $160 million. Because of the expectations that sink projects would be included as a mechanism for achieving targets, several pilot projects were voluntarily implemented involving mostly private sector entities (e.g., electric utility companies, oil companies and environmental non-governmental organisations). Between the beginning of 1996 and the end of 2003, 76 transactions involving carbon sequestration in the LULUCF sector were signed, representing 40 million tCO2-e. Relative to all of the carbon transactions that took place over the same period, sink projects accounted for 21 percent of the total number and 23 percent of the total volume. In volume terms, carbon sequestration projects were the single largest project category, and more than three-quarters of this volume was transacted between 1996 and 1999.

The ‘greenhouse effect’ earns its name from the rough similarity between the way it works and the way the glass of a greenhouse works. Glass too, is transparent to short-wave radiation but opaque to long-wave radiation, so the greenhouse traps heat.
Carbon dioxide plays a critical role in controlling the Earth’s climate because as an aerosol it absorbs and reflects or scatters incoming radiation on the one hand and absorbs and reradiates outgoing infrared radiation on the other. This latter phenomenon results in what is popularly called the Greenhouse Effect, an analogy to what happens in a greenhouse.

Introduction
As one of the biggest youth demographics worldwide, especially in India Gen Z, represents a distinct consumer segment defined by their digital fluency and progressive values. Their deep integration with technology has reshaped traditional shopping habits, making e-commerce platforms central to their purchasing decisions (Smith, 2020). This generation highly values health and sustainability, pushing e-commerce platforms to address these priorities. This shift is crucial in meeting the evolving behaviours of Gen Z, who emphasize wellness and environmental considerations in their purchasing choices. E-commerce platforms possess powerful tools that influence consumer behaviour, especially with the Gen Z demographic. This generation is well known for its tech-savviness and strong social and environmental consciousness and responds uniquely to online marketing strategies. E-commerce platforms are pivotal in shaping Gen Z’s health and sustainability practices. They achieve this by providing a wide variety of wellness-oriented products and information, which assists in educating and motivating consumers about healthy lifestyle. Additionally, these platforms feature eco-friendly products and promote sustainable practices, aligning the Gen Z’s growing concern for environmental issues. The choice of this topic was inspired by a few things such as health consciousness and sustainable consumption. This interdisciplinary topic combines insights from consumer psychology, digital marketing, and environmental science, offering valuable implications for businesses and policymakers aiming to engage this tech-savvy generation effectively. The focus on this emerging area of research helps fill gaps in existing literature and provides strategic guidance for optimizing digital commerce strategies. Case studies on MyFitnessPal and Nike’s Move to Zero initiative demonstrate how an e-commerce platform can promote health awareness and sustainable consumption among Gen Z. This topic will aid businesses and marketers in customizing their online strategies to align with Gen Z’s emphasis on health and sustainability. It assists policymakers and environmental organizations in formulating improved practices and regulations for responsible consumption. Developers of e-commerce platforms can leverage these insights to design features that align with users’ values. For researchers, it enriches the understanding of consumer behaviour and digital marketing. Finally, it helps consumers to make more informed decisions by demonstrating how e-commerce influences their health and environmental choices.

Abstract

The Western Desert covers approximately 700,000 km², which is more than two-thirds of the total area of Egypt. This immense desert, to the west of the Nile, spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea to the Sudanese border. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert’s plain and extends from Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir plateau. Scarps and deep depressions exist in several parts of the Western Desert. Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the western desert oases (Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga), all of which have fresh groundwater. Siwa Oasis, close to the Libyan border, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa’s cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great visited the temple in the pre-Christian era. The Oasis is a natural depression about 23 meters below sea level. It covers an area of about 1050 km² (2,50,000 acres); of which only 87.95 km² (20,940 acres) are currently cultivated. The total numbers of inhabitants in Siwa were 21,482 in 2006. The main activity in Siwa oasis is agriculture which depends on the groundwater that outflows from about 1199 wells and springs giving a total annual discharge of about 255 million cubic meters from which, about 222 million cubic meters are lost due to evaporation and evapotranspiration, while the remainder goes to the natural lakes of Siwa Oasis. This has led to a continuous rise in the water table level and soil salinity.

Present research paper on land degradation processes relates to the improper management of water and land resources in Siwa Oasis, Egypt.

2.1 Geological and accelerated erosion

Erosion has always taken place, and always will. The surface of the earth is constantly changing, with mountains rising, valleys being cut deeper and wider, the coast line receding here and advancing there. The physical pattern of the surface of the earth which we see today is not the result of some single cataclysmic sculpturing but the result of changes so infinitely slow that only after centuries is the effect noticeable. Erosion is simply one of the aspects of the constant process of change. It is fundamental to the formation of alluvial soils and sedimentary rocks. Man’s activities seldom slow down or halt the process but frequently speed it up. We usually refer to geological erosion or normal erosion, or natural erosion when we mean that which results only from the forces of nature, and to accelerated erosion when the process is influenced by man.

When trying to predict the probable severity of man-made erosion it helps to consider the rate of geological erosion. If the conditions of climate and topography are such that geological erosion is quicker than usual, then these sameronditions will also lead to particularly severe accelerated erosion. Extreme examples of both kinds of erosion are shown in plates 2.1 and 2.2.

Since the last decade discussion regarding ecology is being heard. A campaign with a great planning has launched by holding seminar conferences and meets. The ecological problem became a matter of tremendous panic and anxiety. Not only in India but also in entire world this problem is being discussed through all school, colleges and universities on international scale all over world, since it became universal issue now a days. The word ecology was not known to the people 20 years ago, never the less it became familiar even among the villages today. The people in villages are making thorough study of the subject. The experts of ecology from all over the world have been surprised to learn the exhaustive study of the same done by the Indian scholars. We have instituted a separate ministry to look after the environmental problems. The activities injurious to environment are prohibited. An act is there to restrict antienvironmental deeds what made scientists all over the world to take this matter so seriously. Does it mean that the very existence of mankind has been jeopardized by it Let us see what our ancient literature say about the ecology and pollution.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

3.1 Physical characteristics

There is obviously an association between the amount of rainfall and the amount of soil erosion, i.e. more rain goes with more erosion, and less rain with less erosion, but in statistical terms the correlation between the two is poor. The same total quantity of rain can on different occasions result in widely differing amounts of erosion, and so other more specific measures are required to describe the ability of rainfall to cause erosion. In this chapter we shall establish the known facts about the main physical properties of rainfall, and then in chapter 4 show how these properties are related to the erosive power of rainfall.

3.1.1 Quantity of rainfall

Any measure of rainfall amount is a sample, and so associated with the inevitable problems of sampling, namely, ⁴is the sample representative of the whole?’ and ‘is the sample measured accurately?’ On both counts the data of rainfall which are usually available are of very doubtful reliability. Considering firstly the size of the sample measured, a very intensive network of rain gauges such as that established in an experimental catchment might be as dense as one gauge per 25 hectares, but this corresponds (with a 125 mm diameter gauge) to a sample of about one in 20 million, which would for any other scientific measurement be considered totally inadequate. The density of gauges in a country which considers itself very well provided might be one gauge per 25 square kilometres - a sample of one in 2 000 million, and in an undeveloped country the density of one gauge per 2 500 square kilometres is a sample of 1 in 200 000 000 000! Secondly, the siting of this remarkably small number of gauges is usually arranged primarily on convenience, eg where they can be easily read and contained, with little or no consideration of whether the site is representative of the whole. Thirdly, the accuracy of the measurement is usually unknown and studies have shown that variations in the shape and size of the instrument, and in the height at which it is mounted, and the way it is shielded from the wind, can seriously affect the recorded amount of rainfall. Clearly, even the apparently straightforward question of how much rain falls is not answered as precisely as might be imagined from a survey of rainfall tables and maps.

Abstract

Drought and salinity are two major abiotic stresses that affect various aspects of human lives of one third world population including human health and agricultural productivity. Abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, nutrient deficiency or toxicity, and flooding limit crop productivity world-wide. A living organism is considered resistant if it tolerates a given physicochemical stress. The presence of microorganisms within the soil, specially a main group known as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), is a key factor in the adaptation of plants to the different ecosystems. The AMF colonizing within the plant roots can determine the success of plants in salt- and/or drought-affected areas. The symbiosis with AMF has been proposed as one of the mechanisms of salinity and water stress avoidance. Studies have shown greater drought and salinity tolerance in AMF-colonized plants by a number of mechanisms. These mechanisms include enhanced water and nutrient uptake directly by extraradical hyphae, higher leaf stomatal conductance and/or better root system architecture, higher capacity of osmotic adjustment and antioxidant defense systems, better soil structure due to higher glomalin and over expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes.

Abstract

There are two distinct types of oscillations in global oceans, separated in their frequencies by the period of the pendulum day. One species is the gravity waves and the other is the rotational waves, associated with earth’s rotation. Both these species can be found in tidal records around islands as well as near coastlines. These two types of modes are usually found in the tsunami records on tide gauges. The tide gauge records as well as visual descriptions of the water levels during and after the occurrence of a tsunami clearly show the presence of these oscillations. During the tsunami of 26th December 2004 in the Indian Ocean, media reports suggested high water levels persisted around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for several days. These persistent high water levels can be explained by invoking the existence of trapped and partially leaky modes on the shelves surrounding these islands.

Keywords: Oscillations in global waves, Tsunami (2004), Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as critical tools in modern agriculture and weather intelligence. Their integration has revolutionized how we monitor, analyze, and manage not only food production but also urban development, natural resource conservation, and climate adaptation. In this chapter, we explore the fundamentals of remote sensing, the use of diverse sensing technologies (including satellite imagery, radar, LiDAR, and thermal imaging), and the incorporation of advanced data analytics and machine learning. We also examine GIS integration for spatial analysis and mapping, discuss emerging technologies like unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, and address economic, ethical, and policy considerations. Real-world case studies illustrate the practical applications of these technologies, while discussions on future directions highlight opportunities for continued innovation. Food production systems and its management today face unprecedented challenges—from climate variability and resource scarcity to urban expansion and shifting ecosystems. To address these challenges, modern strategies increasingly depend on synthesizing high-resolution environmental data with advanced spatial analysis. Remote sensing technologies provide a bird’s-eye view of vast landscapes, while GIS platforms enable efficient management and interpretation of these datasets. The integration of these technologies supports a host of applications, including real-time monitoring of weather phenomena, predictive modeling of environmental impacts, and strategic planning for sustainable development. With emerging trends such as drone-based monitoring, IoT sensor networks, and AIdriven analytics, the potential for remote sensing and GIS to transform weather intelligence and environmental management is growing exponentially. This chapter provides both the technical foundation and applied perspectives necessary to understand and leverage these powerful tools.

Governments play a pivotal role in fostering CRRD by formulating policies, mobilizing resources, and promoting sustainable practices to enhance rural resilience. Governments in CMCs are central to designing and implementing policies that integrate climate resilience into rural development. 4.1.1 Policy Frameworks for Climate Resilience National adaptation plans (NAPs) and climate- focused agricultural policies are critical tools. For instance, Bangladesh's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) prioritizes climate- resilient crops and coastal embankments to protect rural communities from salinity intrusion (MoEF, Bangladesh 2005). Similarly, India's National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture promotes climate-smart farming techniques like zero-tillage and drought-resistant seeds (MoAFW, India 2023). These policies align with CIRDAP's mission to foster sustainable rural development by addressing region-specific

Abstract

Though people belonging to different disciplines from the common citizen to top level administrators are familiar with cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, etc., the tsunami which struck and devastated over 1000 km long Tamil Nadu coast was not only unexpected but also an unknown phenomenon for the people of this part of the region. The Government of Tamil Nadu, though faced with this disaster for the first time, has efficiently managed the crisis owing to clear policy directions from the top political executive of the government, the planned working of the ministers, the committed service rendered by the senior officials and the tireless efforts of district collectors and their supporting staff down the line. The immediate measures taken in search, rescue and relief operations are detailed in this paper. Also covered are the rehabilitation measures undertaken including those for orphaned children and unmarried girls and the steps adopted for the prevention of epidemics.

Keywords: Tsunami Disaster, State Administration, Relief and Rehabilitation, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION

India is traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been occurring regularly in some part of the country or the other. In Tamil Nadu, the unprecedented drought in 2002-03, followed by another drought of comparatively less severity in 2003-04 and the floods in the northern coastal districts in October-November, 2004 had kept the State machinery on constant alert. But the tsunami that struck the coastal districts on 26^th December, 2004 was an altogether new and nightmarish experience. It was a disaster, the like of which, had not been seen before. The suddenness and the ferocity with which the waves gushed into the habitations along the 1076 km long coast line, taking the people totally unaware, caused unprecedented damage, death and destruction and posed the greatest challenge to the State administration. However, the state faced the challenge successfully, thanks to the vision and commitment shown by the Government and the timely help rendered by a number of non-governmental organisations and groups.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

The Imperative for Regional Collaboration Climate change poses a transboundary threat that no single nation can address in isolation. In CMCs, rural populations, often dependent on agriculture and natural resources, are disproportionately vulnerable. For instance, Assam, India, faces rising temperatures and frequent floods, threatening 86% of its agriculture-dependent rural population. Similarly, Bangladesh, a climate change hotspot, grapples with salinization and cyclones that disrupt rural livelihoods. Regional collaboration offers a pathway to pool resources, share expertise, and develop scalable solutions. As the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia highlights, collaborative action enhances food and water security through shared knowledge

There is no terminal of any kind of research, rather they presence a static snap of the gamut of ecological dynamics and functions.

The following scopes for future research

• To construct modelling on resilience, beyond agriculture like livestock f ishery, forestry.

• To create new Algorithm of prediction in ecological behaviour and dynamics

• Gender and economic factors in resilience study and analysis

• Ecological resilience in different agro climatic zones covering coastal ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem red lateritic ecosystem etc

• Policy research in ensuring and intriguing ecological resilience as well as social resilience on the common platform of production behaviour

• Importance of ecological resilience in the perspective of climate change and global warming

Introduction

A thematic layer is defined as a layer with a set of logical feature data placed under single theme such as soil type, pH level, salinity, and water table. The features in these layers determine real world objects and are created using geometries such as points, lines and polygons (Tickoo 2017). Thematic layering is the spatial representation of analyzed data of elements that belong to the same type. Thematic maps are used to create these layers, which show how one or more specific data themes vary across different geographic areas.